Scotts Cloth, Plaid, Tarten Hose & Broadswords

1683: 4 ps. w/th "plaiding" qt. 125 yds

Of the people from the British Islands and Ireland, the Scots made up the majority of people who emigrated to New York from the 1680s - 1720s. A number of Scottish came to New York prior to the Queen Ann's Test Act of 1703  including Robert Livingston who arrived in the Town of Albany in 1674.  John Spratt and John MaxWell were two others. However, after England took Sovereign control in 1674, aside from the Governor in NYC and the New Englanders on Long Island, it was primarliy through Scottish eyes the colonist understood England. They were that numerous.

I am often asked if Scots in America wore Scottish clothes. As someone who descends from the 18th Century Mcdougalds of North Carolina I am eager to find the answer too. However, one can only dress according to what was available. What was available was often defined by demand.

For 18th Century New York, in particular, the consumers were able to influence what merchants ordered, as they would completely snub something that was not culturally acceptable... like small sprigs of flowered cloth. The prerogative of New Yorkers were big bodacious flowers to the point that merchants returned the small sprigged cloth to London explaining it wouldn't sell. One merchant went as far as to draw - again - a large mass of a flower explaining it was to scale and not to send anything smaller. The London merchants must have though New Yorkers were hopeless, but New Yorkers - for as reserved as they were in business - wore their big bodacious flowers as though a tribal marker. We will circle back to this issue later, but it provides a glimpse into just how stubborn New York consumers were through the first half of the 18th Century. It may also be why onlookers noted that it was difficult to define the difference between the wealthy and the working class, because everyone looked middle class in their large printed silks, woolens and calicos. It also meant that people of various heritages could strut their stuff in the clothing of their mother country. And people of other heritages had no qualms about adding something different normally associated with a different heritage... like tartan !


Doing The Numbers:

While an exact number of people of Scottish heritage who immigrated to New York is not known, there was one Presbyterian church by 1650, four by 1700, 35 by 1750 and 50 by 1775 spread out across the Province. To put this in perspective, there were only 0, 2, 20, and 26 Anglican churches respectively. When looking for a persona with distinct clothing, textiles and a ton of fun... check out the Scots !


 Number of Churches in the Province of New York by Denomination:

Year                                  1650    1700    1750    1775
Scot Presbyterian                1        4           35         50
Scot Calvinist                      4        0            5         12
Eng. Anglican                      0        2           20         26
Eng. Quaker                        0        8           14         22

It is estimated that about 7, 000 Scotts emigrated to an English colony in America prior to the year 1700. Between 1717 - 1775, an estimated 200,000 Scot-Irish from Ulster Co. in Northern Ireland emigrated to America.

1753: Patrick Fisher, indićted of cutting out of a loom and stealing a tartan plaid, was, at his own desire, sentenced to be transported to America, and banished Scotland for life. - Scotts Magazine

A Wave of Scottish People: 

After the English landed in 1664, then received sovereign control in 1667, Governor Dongan had a reasonable concern about the lack of immigrants from England.

Dated 1687: "I believe for these last 7 years past, there has not come over into this province twenty English Scotch or Irish families. But on the contrary on Long Island the people increase so fast that they complain for want of land and many remove from thence into the neighboring province." - Population History of New York City, By Ira Rosenwaike

While England had a difficult time getting English people to choose New York rather than New England or Pennsylvania or Virginia, the Scottish were more than happy to take the jobs that were available. They are listed as being weavers, cart drivers, and in other trades and labors.

NewEngland, Philadelphia and Virginia were more appealing to the English in part because an immigrant's new neighbors would have spoken English, as compared to the commonly spoken Dutch, Deutsch or French in New York. To do business in New York being bilingual would have been necessary.

Additionally, New England, PA, and Virginia also had large volumes of farming land available for mono-cropping (tobacco plantations, cotton plantation, corn or wheat farming)... New York has land that produced market gardens, orchards, tobacco and dairy cows which was less appealing. While many people of England were looking to purchase land or set up a shop, the Scot-Irish were looking for employment, and looked to a Province with fewer slaves.

With low immigration, came another problem, germs. The community experienced low immigration but high transient population that came into and out of town. The community developed immunity over time from repeat exposure to germs. However, for the immigrants who did make the trip, 1702 was devastating year, roughly 570 young and old died from yellow fever.  In 1731, smallpox will take another 549 people. These are diseases that if a person survives, they will develop immunity.

Despite all this, the Scotts are hardy people. By the year 1700 there were four Presbyterian churches with Scottish and x-New England members plus enough Scots to support an additional 4 more Calvinist Churches. For those looking to do a 1670s - 1720s era persona, the Scottish are a great option !

Tartan, Scots' Cloth or Plaid mentioned in documents:

During my search I only found 18th Century documents including the poem from 1724. However, Jenn Scott supplied us with these references from the 17th Century. Her book, "Better is the Proud Plaid" takes the deep dive all the way back to the 17th Century using primary sources and is currently out in Amazon UK. It will be available to Americans in December... it is a must have for reenactors looking for well researched sources !

1618–33 Collie Highland Dress 10.

Their [sc. Highlanders'] habit is shoes with but one sole apiece, stockings (which they call short hose) made of a warm stuff of divers colours which they call tartane … A jerkin of the same stuff that their hose is of … with a plaid [etc.];

1699 Reg. Privy C. in Chambers Domestic Annals Scotl. III 126.]

Woollen stuffs of all sorts, … draughts, friezes, drogats, tartains, craips, capitations ' however certainly the gaelic references the time refer to the item of clothing - plaid and the cloth - tartan as checked or speckled



Some 18th Century mentions I found:



1724: I'll make ye a Propine, My Mither, honest Wife, has made it fine; A Tartan Plaid, spun of good hauslock Woo, Scarlet and Green the Sets, the Borders Blue, With Spraings like Gou'd and Siller, cross'd wi' Black, I never had it'yet upon my Back. - Miscellaneous Works of that celebrated Scotch poet, Allan Ramsay, By Allan Ramsay * Hauslock Wool, fine wool from the neck of the sheep. 

1749: [The clothing] It consisted of a roll of light woollen, called a plaid, six yards in length, and two in breadth, wrapped loosely 'around the body, the' upper lappet of which rested on the left shoulder, leaving the right arm at full liberty; a jacket of thick cloth, fitted highly to the body; and a loose short garment of light woolen that went around the waist and covered the thigh. - 1749 The Monthly Review, Volume 45, by Griffin or 1773 Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland. From the dissolution of the last ...By Sir John DALRYMPLE

1785: The Highland plaid is composed of a woollen stuff, sometimes very fine, called tartan. This stuff confifts of various colours, forming stripes which cross each other at right angles; and the natives value themselves upon the judicious arrangement ... -
The New Universal Traveller: Containing a Full and Distinct Account of All, By Jonathan Carver

1818: First time acted in Covent Garden in 1757, The Play "DOUGLAS" Character costumes: NORVAL - Green plaid jacket, kilt, and tartan, flesh-'colored' stockings and arms, breastplate, cap, and sandals.  LORD RANDOLPH - Scarlet silk plaid jacket, ibid. GLENALVON - Green plaid, ibid. , Old NORVAL. Drab 'colored' doublet and breeches, plaid scarf, ibid. DONALD. Red plaid jacket, kilt and tartan, beast plate, ibid. -Dramatic Library, Volume 4 , 1818.    

In these quotes we can see that "tartan" comes in a variety of colors. And in the 1724 poem a tartan plaid in this instance had - "Scarlet and Green the Sets, the Borders Blue, With Spraings like Gou'd and Siller, cross'd wi' Black...". These quotes give us snippets and clues.

Scots Cloth in Probate Inventories and For Sale:

Plaids likely started coming over with the first Scottish after 1674, though few in number at first they along with the locals created a demand for merchants and shopkeepers to begin selling tartan fabric. The Scottish likely wore their tradition clothing while living in NY just as most everyone else did. It was the kind of place, where you could go to a market and pick out a person's ethnicity simply based on their clothes even in the 1670s, '80s & '90s. However, others including German and Dutch were  using tartan fabric for more mainstream clothing also. 

1697: John sprat (Scottish) and Maria de Peyster (Dutch) were merchants and had 5 ps of Scotts Cloth valued at 2.10.00 in their NYC store. They also have 14 yards "remaining" valued at 2.14.00.   

1695: Johannes "John" Clopper of NYC and of German heritage had "Scotts cloth" in his probate inventory.  

1684: Wina van Hoven of NYC and of Dutch heritage had 1 black "Tartenel" Samare  with "tocker" [tucker or modesty linen for across the top of stays]  in her personal inventory.  A samare is a pleated back robe, more like a coat when made of heavy material and more gown like when made of light material, with center front closure and no stomacher. By the 1680s, it could be as short as hip length or as long as mid-calf, never as long as the ankle. They are popular from 1580s to 1720s. 

1682: The inventory of Joseph Taylor a merchant of NYC had "Item 22 yards of linen Cloath 55 d: 15 1/2 of fine Scotch "Cloath" 52 d" valued at 5.07.00. 

A Scottish Merchant from Blastowne: 

The merchant, John MaxWell was a member of the Scots Charitable Society in Boston however, he was making a move to NY. He died on a return trip to New York from "Blastowne" Scotland in 1682, aboard his shipped called Rebecca: 

2 ps. of coarse cloth qt. 20 yes. 12 d yd... 1.00.00
4 ps. w/th "plaiding" qt. 125 yds at 9 d. yd. L1.0.0 ... 4.13.09
2 ps. coarse Serge 2 ps. qt. 36 yds. f. 3:12:39 yd 15 d... 6.00.09

The above "4 pieces with plaiding" is likely a cloth with checks upon it. A John Maxwell is listed as part owner of a ship named "Ann" along with John Borland a Scotsmen in Boston. The inventory that arrived in NYC from the ship, is not just a record of import from Scotland, it also happened to include his personal clothing including 1 feather bed 1 "baluster" & pillows, 10 old shirts, 1 black velvet cap furred, plus...

"2 Cloth Suits with 24 doz. [Buttons ? and ] 11 plate Buttons and  9 p[r] of tartan hose 15 d ... 0.11.03"  

The inventory also included kersey, stuff, cloth, coarse cloth, and serge... so we know that even if the "plaiding" was not checked, it was not one of the other types of cloth mentioned.


Some Extra Citations of Interest:  

In 1745, there was an issue where a bundle of cloth would have a "Scotts Cloth" on top and English made cloth under it... which did not go over well.  The Scottish wanted only their cloth to be sold under the label of "Scots Cloth"". "The Present State of Scotland Consider'd: and Its ... Sinking Condition Charged Upon the Conduct of the Landed Gentlemen, &c. Shewing ... that the Only Mean of Relieving Their Estates ... is by Their Joining Together to Promote Home Manufacture, Etc", Scotland, W. and T. Ruddimans, 1745

With this in mind, it might be advisable to take into consideration the pride of the Scots when portraying colonist. In 1746, the following order was given to exclude Scottish clothing for people in "...his Majesty's forces..." and can be found in "Anno Regni Georgii II. Regis Magnae Britanniæ, Franciæ, & Hiberniæ, Vicesimo Primo ... (An Act to Amend and Enforce So Much of an Act Made in the Nineteenth Year of His Majesty's Reign, as Relates to the More Effectual Disarming the Highlands in Scotland ... )" by Adrian Watkins, 1748.

1780 - Highland Wedding David Allan (1744-1796)

A Note on Swords: 

The Scots used a "two handed swords" in the 16th Century along with arrows for defense in the early years but switched over to pistols and "broadswords" in by the 17th Century. - "A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland: Containing a Full Account ...", 1703 By Martin Martin.

Broadswords were brought to 17th Century New York. Our merchant John MaxWell had a few other items. The goods included: "1 Gunn 2 Carbines; 3 broad swords". Plus, in with the bridle and livery clothing was "a silver hilt sword" likely his personal cavalry sword which would only have one side of the blade sharpened as compared to duel blades on the broadsword. Swords like most goods were coming in from far and wide... remember the Japanese sword?

"Swords" are commonly mentioned in New Netherland and New York however, however rapiers are most often cited. From most common to least: Rapier, Sword, Cutlas, and Hanger in the 17th Century definitions. A few of the "swords" are associated with livery or bridles and saddles but it is not common.

For events targeting the second half of the 17th and first half of the 18th... dressing with tartan hose and plaid is a great way for reenactors to connect with their audiences ! Just mind the accents...


To all my McDougald kin down in North Carolina:

1724: 

I'll make ye a Propine, 

My Mither, honest Wife, has made it fine; 

A Tartan Plaid, spun of good hauslock Woo, 

Scarlet and Green the Sets, the Borders Blue, 

With Spraings like Gou'd and Siller, cross'd wi' Black, 

I never had it'yet upon my Back. 

- Allan Ramsay

Petticoat Stats

"One Spanish cotton petticoat" for him - 1645 Manhattan 

Politics and the Landscape:

When I go through inventories I am not just thinking about a pair of shoes, a sword, or a dress. I often think of how the person would have worn it? Or what a garment is made of and how this is reflected in store records where fabric is purchased ? But I am also considering, How does the inventory influence what a house scene or a street scene or a market square would look like? 

The late 16th and early 17th Century is when a major shift happens on all levels whether politically, culturally or in clothing. In the Netherlands laws, politics, business and fashion are evolving at a steady pace between the 1550s-1690s. The biggest hump they got over was a shift from Spanish to Netherlander self governance. This affected fashion, the economy, politics and a variety of things. For New Netherland, the legal era starts in 1614 when the New Netherland company was chartered, a map of New Netherland was published and the first permanent settlement was built at Rondout on the Hudson River to when England gained legal ownership and sovereign control in 1667. Other dates are often referenced in publications, but legal control is like owning the title to one's home or car or a business... there is a beginning, middle and end. 

The "New Netherland" cultural era appears to be 1614 to the second seizing of the colony by the English in 1674. In 1674, politics and laws were being transferred from Dutch dominance to a deliberate application of English Common law. The deliberate part is the key, it forces a change from de facto powers (e.g. a person squatting in a house ) to de jure (the title sale of a house). 

The third instance is when one has de jure (legal control), but chooses not to enforce a change over which is what happened between 1667 - 1674. It is like continuing to live in the house though a person sold the title. This is what happened after 1667, the English do not enforce English common law until the year 1674 when the king changes his mind. 

Even then, the powers that be could not displace the common culture of the colonist from its continental mindset. Part of the issue was if they pushed too hard, they would loose tax revenue. We have to remember that from 1614 to 1674 the colonist had 60 years to incubate or over two generations. 

This continental mindset continues through to the 1710 - 1720 when large numbers of Scottish people emigrated but they are canceled out by the large numbers of Germans. While a political divide starts in the 1690s, it is not until enough British arrive during the 1720s that the culture is divided too. The province becomes split culturally British vs. Continental (Anglican, Presbyterian and large estate owning Huguenot vs. Lutherian, Dutch Reformed, Calvinist, Moravian, and working class Huguenot). The province will remain split for the entirety of the colonial era. 

What does this mean for reenactors? Most things whether French, Dutch, German, Swedish, English, Scottish and even Asian and some African styles are fair game. Dutch serge, English kersey, Scottish plaids, China silks, Japanese kimonos, Ottoman corded silks and raw mohair, Bengal cottons and even Egyptian alabaster are all in inventories. It is more of, "Was it an export?" if it was it probably made it to the ware houses of Amsterdam and then onto New Netherland and well into 18th Century New York. When I think of New York I am always amazed at the level of sophistication and worldly outlook. 

When picking out a fabric for a petticoat, consider doing something special. Pick a fabric that represents something important or dreamy for the era and sew it into a petticoat. Every time you wear it you will know it is not just a petticoat, it is made from fabric that connects the world and then tell somebody about it. Tell them how far the fabric had to travel to become that special garment just for you. 

Court Records reveal colors, materials and trims: 

1638 -  She took as payment for a hog, as much purple laken as was sufficient for a petticoat. 

1645 -  Red petticoat lined with blue and bound with cord. 

1648 - 2 kotten petticoats 

Early petticoats could be plain or trimmed with cord for people regardless of class. Fullness does not seem to be a factor, full petticoats are seen on wealthy and working class in paintings. 

The above cotton petticoats were made from cotton from plants, not the English use of cotton to mean either cotton from plants or brushed wool. Since the word cotton rather than "sits" was used it was likely a plain/solid colored cotton fabric. See article on solid colors cottons in New Netherland and New York Here.

As the century moves forward so do the description of petticoats: 

1685 -  

One redd cloth petticoat with black lace, One coloured druggett petticoat with redd linking [lace]. 

Early Inventories: 

In 1640, Hester Symonrsen had "2 laken petticoats" and "1 black kersey petticoat". It is difficult to guess what the 2 laken petticoat colors were, except that they were not black. Had they been black the recorder would have written it in as significant. Fabric tended to be dyed in the Netherlands, so it is possible that they were blue, green, or even yellow. When clothing is black, red, scarlet or purple it is often noted. When another color, often it is simply labeled as "colored". Could they have been natural colors? Yes, especially because Hester had lived in England for some time, and natural colors were very popular there. Off-colors - such as reddish- are possible too. Hester also had 12 linen and purple aprons. 

Ides Stoffelsen had a blue kersey, a staal gray lined petticoat, and black coarse Camelot lined petticoat, 1 half worn red petticoat, two old black skirts” in 1641. Here we can see the colors; blue, gray, black and red being used all in one inventory. Here Stoffelsen probably had two black kirtles. She also had a purple apron and four blue aprons. Colored aprons were common at this time, as were white or black. 

The kersey in Stoffelsen's wardrobe is likely continental, however, Symonresen's kersey could also be from London as she and her husband had lived there prior to coming to New Netherland. As a side note, it was not unusual for Dutch women who traveled to England to sport an English broad rim wool hat which was an English fashion then. While Hester doesn't have one in her inventory a number of items are missing. Dutch women usually just wore a cap, but Bermuda straw hats were also popular for keeping off the sun. 

The staal is the word used for the small metal tab that has an impression of the city of origin on it. They were attached to new pieces of fabric. For instance if a piece of cloth had a seal, it means it was the exact length, width, number of warps and even the color tone according to the quality assurance standards of the city. In order for a gray cloth to be standardize one would need either perfectly matched sheep breeds, or dye. 

The 1646 inventory of Aeltje Jans had the following items; "black cloth skirt, half worn, 1 old petticoat of changeable silk". Silk was easily obtainable at fixed prices at the Dutch West Indies store. While changeable silk was not on the West Indies Company store's list, Italian silks were such as tours de Naples. The fix pricing ensured that colonist had access to goods at the cost of goods, plus import cost, plus small profit. It cost more than in the Netherlands, but was still accessible. 

Heavy fabrics are more common during the 1630s and 1640s, and wardrobes with more variety of fabrics during the second half. By the 1650s, wardrobes are well developed with light and heavy fabrics, many colors, and prints are more popular.  


His Petticoat Breeches:

The 1646 inventory taken of the "effects left by Jan Jansen of St. Obyn" in New Amsterdam included; one Spanish cotton petticoat. This petticoat probably belonged to Jansen and were petticoat breeches as he did not have a pair of breeches but did owned a pair of linen onderbroeken which were commonly worn under petticoat coat breeches in the Netherlands. The Spanish cotton is interesting because during the 16th and into the 17th century India was making cotton fabrics for specific markets. The purpose was to cater to the tastes of a specific nation or culture. Fabrics would have scenes, designs or prints favored by their people. There are a couple inventories where there is almost all men's cloths plus a petticoat and no wife or daughter to be found. These are likely the petticoat breeches which are as full and loose as a woman's petticoat. 

"One Spanish cotton petticoat" - 1645 

Doing the numbers:

Cotton and linen petticoats turn up in inventories, however of the 206 petticoats from 1638 to the year 1700, 115 list the fabric. 

Here is a list of the most common, there happens to be many "one offs" too.  

23.2 % - Cotton or Calico 

21.7 % - Silk  

14.5 %   - Laken (a winter only weight fabric) 

11.6 %   - Camelot (medium grade Grossgrain) 

11.6 %   - Serge  

5.8 %     - Stuff 

4.3 %      - Kersey 

These percentages may change as I add in more inventories but it gives reenactors a look at options that were available. If one would like to make a silk petticoat go with a stiffer fabric; cotton should be shirting weight. Laken is a serge that has been "fulled", Serge can be found at Joan Fabrics in the "sporting" section. Look for the fabric that has diagonal lines. They come in cotton (technically did not exist) but the look is good as are the colors. Camelot is made from silk, mohair, or silk-mohair blend if representing a Dutch, Flemish or person from New Netherland or New York. 

Looking to represent a dairy farmer or cheese maker? One can use all these fabrics. The silk petticoat would have been reserved for church and holidays, the Camelot too. Laken is winter ware. And the Serge would have been one's work horse fabric. Kersey is a very reasonable alternative and more affordable for those muddy days. Are you a poor farmer who raised peas and corn? Or selling pancakes out of her home for extra cash? Use serge as your best fabric for church, which is a respectable fabric because even wealthy people keep a serge suit because it is 1) made of Spanish wool 2) very durable and practical which is a trait respected by people of all classes in NY. 

Colors: 

Of 69 Petticoats with the color or descriptor listed from the 1630s to the year 1700:

Number of: 

19   Black 

17  Red 

5   Scarlet  

5   Blue 

4   Green  

4   Colored (blue, green, yellow, gray, brown) 

2   Purple 

1   Gray 

1   White

Not included in the numbers above...There are two cotton petticoats without the color listed, they were likely plain white which was rather cheap and affordable in NN. There are also "colored" petticoats with red or green lining. Striped, brocade, velvet and "farridine" were also present in small numbers. Ferridine, has other spellings, but it is the affordable version of Camelot. Both Farridine and Camelot are made of a mohair and silk blend, but farridine is a plain weave and Camelot is a grosgrain. The petticoats that are black are sometimes lined in a bright color of red, green, blue, etc. when wearing them, a person could wear them with part of the skirt folded up to show off the lining. Interestedly, there are a few petticoats that will say the fabric but not the color but will then list the color of the lining but not the fabric... these are not included in the numbers but I am guessing they were common black. 

Under petticoats:

A 1657 inventory had a "red under petticoat" and a 1685 inventory had "one under petticoat with a body of red bay, one under petticoat scarlet". 

Homespun? 

A quick point on homemade fabric. It did exist. There are some men's garments mentioned as being made from homemade fabric as were storage bags and I think one of the slaves were mentioned as having homespun. However, these are usually very very humble inventories. Homespun sometimes shows up in store inventories. The issue is that the fabric available at the store was so affordable, homespun fabric was usually coarse and reserved for other purposes. Knitting yarn is another story. It seems very fine yarn was being made and was popular. I get the impression that women were more likely to be sewing smalls such as handkerchiefs and aprons or knitting rather than sewing large garments. Loose wool, linen, mohair and cotton is sold in stores. Wool cards and wool or linen spinning wheels are common in English and Scottish homes. Looms are rare everywhere. This is not to say that a reenactor should not make fabric for a petticoat; New York tended to have trained people who were specialist. So, if you can do it, you would. Many people had more than one skill or job. 


Walking down the Street:

When walking down the street roughly a third of petticoats will be black with a bright color lining that is folded back to be seen. Another third could be calico, brocade, or have some kind of pattern. The last third would be the greens, blues, and purples. There would be a couple gray and while the inventories do not mention yellow it is in some 17th Century paintings, and turns up in other garments in NY inventories. I would give yellow the go ahead as a petticoat because other women's garments were yellow.. but it would be a Indian mustard cotton or China yellow silk to be in sync with the era. How do I know yellow cotton existed? Because I happen to own a yellow cotton French dressing gown from the 1720s. 

Petticoats are one of those things a sew-a-long is great for. There is so much fabric to make a properly full 17th Century petticoat chatting is a must. Each person can pick a fabric that really means something and can be a topic for conversation with tourist. Let them guess what it is made of, where it was imported from and why the fabric was used rather than a different fabric. Let them know just how small the world was. 

Sorry for no images, In the guide book I am putting together there will be images. 

Drawers for Men and Women

"Four Yellow Love Drawers" - 1685

I have thought for sometime on how to broach the topic of underwear as I have found out the hard way that there are many established ideas on what was and wasn't. However, the story of how "underbeeches" and what were later called drawers came to be actually reflects just how human we all are.

When Wina who was from the province of Horn in the Netherlands arrived in America, she was a whip of a business woman. She had to have known her market as she arrived with an extensive list of exotic goods from the east. She opened her shop right next to her husband's doctoring practice. With side by side storefronts, everything in their lives seems to have been intimate. Her wares were so numerous they spilled over into his office with porcelain stacked on shelves on the walls. Wina's wardrobe was no different as it included 5 work day suits, a fine suit in silk and a number of calico gowns plus over 50 fontages and headbands. But it is the four yellow drawers in silk that let us peek into the lives of those in 17th Century New York. Her husband an apparently reserved person in comparison only owned 2 capes, 2 black or gray suits and a dressing gown... plus 7 pairs of drawers that range from linen to silk. In one chest, there was even a blue and white feather. The couples of New York even if reserved on the outside as was Wina's husband, or spectacular on the outside as was Wina herself... all seem to keep something special and dare I say flirtatious in the marriage.

Wina and her husband were not alone, while most of the 112 drawers that have shown up in the the 28 inventories referenced are linen, there is also the saucier side.

Due to the PG nature of this blog we'll have to skip the naughty bits... but I am looking forward to my presentation at Boston History Camp this Saturday.


[ Since publishing in the last few weeks the number of drawers has gone up to 128 from 33 inventories during the same time period 1630-1720s. These were men's clothes inventories, windows are doing a great job of keeping any and all their clothing out of inventories. July 18, 2018 ] 

Salem Pouris: Calico Fabric in Solid Blue or Plain White

4 1/4  [ells of] Pouris Blue Calico 0.3.8 - 1722

There is a reenactor conundrum where someone wants to use cotton fabric in order to make a historically correct outfit on a budget, and they are told to only use cotton that comes in prints, checks or stripes. This is because of the huge number of surviving examples of cotton fabrics in museums or private collections that are chintz and calicos patterns. The designs preserved in surviving garments and textiles are almost always in at least two shades or two or more colors, but almost none are in solid (plain) colors.


Intro: 

There has been some confusing information out there in fashion history books that do not line up with economic history books. It is not unusual for fashion history books to claim that solid colored 100% cotton (both cotton warp and cotton weft) fabrics did not exist. However, economic history books not only claim that they did exist but they were being shipped around the world. One particular inventory from New York City demonstrates that it even existed in America. Why all the confusion? 

There are two reasons; terminology and the customer demographic. Much of it has to do with technical terms being used for specific fabrics by weavers and merchants while laymen's terms are being used by shopkeepers and end customer. A merchant needs to be accurate in their letters and purchase orders, learning very quickly that they will receive the wrong item if the exact term is not used. Bills of lading are less descriptive but useful. This is what we see happen with solid blue 100 % cotton fabric. The technical term or term used in merchant purchase orders and bills of lading is "Salempouris" by the French and "Salempuris" by the Dutch. The second reason is customer demographic, of which there were at least three. The Dutch in the Golden Age were curious about the world, had a middle class with 64% of people working non-agrigrarian jobs, and could afford the importation of both the cheap calicos in solid colors and the more expensive painted versions. Salempouris continues to be imported to the Netherlands and greater Low Countries region from the 17c through the 19c. Salempouris or "course blue cotton" was being imported by an American Dutchmen in 1651 and sold by a Dutchwoman in 1722. The second customer demographic are the free people of Africa, Asia, some America Indigenous people, and those in English New York. The third customer demographic are people of African heritage in bondage, who prized the blue cloth of their motherland. For people in bondage, the blue cloth was part of their ethnic identity.  

While it is tempting to call salempouris blue or white a slave trade fabric, the "guinees" blue or white was actually used specifically for this purpose. Guinees could also come in more varieties, usually check or striped. It is likely that if a solid (or plain) blue or white was called "guinees", it was really a Salempouris. Noting also, that Salempouris increased in quality over time. Also, "plain" is the key word historically, rather than "solid". Salempouris is sometimes used in the slave trade as payment and as clothing, though it was also worn by free people in the Low Countries, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. It was favored outside of the slave trade, and interestedly crossed classes and incomes. 


Manuscript from 'Tashrih al-aqvam, India Early 19th Century.  

Salempouris and the African Trade:

Salempouris comes in only two forms "blanc" and "blew", bleached white or solid blue, and is named for the town of origin, Salem. This is in contrast to a fabric such as "guinees" which is named for the destination place in Africa and also comes in "blanc" and "blew". The solid blue or white salempouris was not expensive, was very affordable and perfect for New York's hot humid weather. 

"How India Clothed the World", Edited by Riello, Roy, Prakash and Sugihara, Global Economic History Series by Brill. 

Salempouris: A broad cotton cloth produced in the Coromandel Coast, usually white or blue, between 14 and 16 metres long and about 1 meter wide, with thread counts ranging from 50 to 90 threads per inch. These cloths were among the most common cloths exported from South India by the English, Dutch and French companies during the seventeenth and eighteenth century

Muris:  Plain [blue] cotton cloths about 8 to 9 meters long and about 1.3 meters wide, with thread counts ranging from 70 to 90 threads per inch and sometimes as high as 130 thread per inch for very fine cloth

We can see below that it was popular in Senegal along with other African regions too. The same book explains that a supplier could trade poor quality pepper for either counterfeit goods, blue cotton cloth from India, painted Indians, or white cotton canvas. The link below is a free google books copy. It is an amazing resource.


Dictionnaire universel de commerce, d'histoire naturelle et des arts et metiers
Philemon-Louis Savary, 1742

Commerce Du Senegal
Toiled Basta "bleu", & "Salempouris", de 12 aunes & demi a la piece, ............6100p

Grand Sestre, & Coste De Malaguette, ou Maniguette

Ce poivre est beaucoup plus acre que celui des Indes Orientales; mais il y peut supplier, quand les retours de la flore Orientale de Hollande n'ont pas et e heureux en cette marchandise; & alors il y a beaucoup a gagner, ce poivre ne s'achetant le quintal que 3 liv. en marchandise "contrebordee" jeune & noir, ou noir & blanc; ou en toiled de cotton "bleues" de Indes, nommées Salempouris; en Indiennes "peintes", ou en toiles de coton blanc. 

This pepper is much more acrid than that of the East Indies; but the supplier may beg, when the returns of the Oriental flora of Holland have not been happy in this commodity; & then there is much to gain, this pepper only buying the quintal 3 liv. in counterfeit goods young & black, or black & white; or in cotton cloth "blue" from India, named Salempouris; in "painted" Indians, or in white cotton canvas. 

A study mentioning Salempouris can be found in "The textile industry and the economy of south india". Plus, Salempouris is spoken about in detail in "Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620-1740" by Glamann, page 146. 

"The supply of coarse [cotton] fabrics has also been unsatisfactory. It was especially the gathering of "guinees" and salempouris on the Coromandel Coast that failed [in the 1690s due to interlopers]. The Directors suggested that it should be attempted to transfer the production of these goods to Bengal, or if possible, to supplement the deficiency on the Coast." 

By about the 1690s, the English had opportunities to displace some of the Dutch trade in India by paying for the finished textiles before they were made. This is compared to how the Dutch did business which was to supply the weavers with "free" cotton, then choose higher quality finished products when the textiles were finished. The only issue with paying upfront was that the English took the good with the bad in one bale. 


Here we can see the ship's bills of lading on their return trips from India to Amsterdam in 1732 & 1733. 

30 December 1732

Carga, or Ladinge, of four East Indian Return ships, to we ten, Oostrust and Meermond, to the Chamber of Amsterdam, Wickenburg and Schuitwyk, to the Chamber of Zeeland: on the 30 December 1732. van Ceilon left.

19140 ps. Salempouris divers.

Done in the Hage den 20 July 1733. 

In this month there are several East Indian Return ships in the Ports of these Countries arrived, of which the next Cargaas are seen. Carga, or Ladinge, of seven East Indian Return ships, namely, Stadwyk, 't Hof not altyd Winter, and Geertruid, for the Amsterdam Chamber; Meyenburg and Westcapel for the Zeeland Chamber, Maria-Adriana, for the Rooms Delft and Rotterdam; the Cornelia, for the Chambers Hoorn and Enkhuisen: they had left from Batavia on November 30, 1732.

9960 ps Salempouris 

11 May 1733 

On the 11th of this month, in the evening at 7 o'clock, the Queen of Vrankryk happily gave birth to a Princess. On the 19th, April and 4th May, arrived in the Port of Orient, the Ships the Mars, the Duke of Chartres, and the Attalante, of Mocha, and Pondichery, their load consists in:

6400 stuks Guinees divers.
9360 stuks Salempouris divers.
26537 stukken witte [white] Salempouris.
30090 st. witte [white] Gninees.
5358 st blaauwe [blue] Salempouris.
3900 st blauwe [blue] Guinees.

Salempouris, is not expensive. It is actually a cheap affordable fabric, though the color was sought after, the prices do not reflect the popularity. It is likely because such huge volumes were made. "Guinees"- which were woven in many different towns in India - were valued at about twice that of Salempouris. As the table below shows, the cotton fabrics from India were able to hold their prices compared to silks which became more and more affordable in the Netherlands in part due to the Dutch specializing in luxury fabrics, they were able to reduce the price. Silk and Calico become so affordable in the Netherlands and due to the ties many New York merchants had with Holland, that they are found in most wardrobes. 

Calico textiles of a variety of types were in wealthy merchants, middle class tradesmen, and the working class inventories in New York. 

"Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620-1740" by Glamann, page 284, 285, 286.  

            Persian Silk      Bengali Silk    Chinese Silk    Salempouris    Guinees
            fl. per pound         same               same             fl. per piece      same 

1698         8.45                 11.89             14.90                 8.66               21.10

          1700           -                      7.97               9.30                 8.20               21.40
          1705           -                  -                         6.62                 8.66               19.25 
          1706         5.30

 1731           -                      5.85                 -                     7.75               16.50

South America: Venezuela and the Caribbean

While looking around for sources, I came upon this quote from a Dutch WIC employee looking to establish relations with the indigenous population of South America. He mentions the flow of goods to and from the Caribbean, which is possibly how he received in the salempouris. However, it also provides one example of how solid blue cotton was used.

May 5th, 1769 - List of Goods which I have advanced on behalf of the West India Company at the Post of Cuyuni [post van 'Coejanie'], in payment of 'togas' to the 'Indiejanen'. Hired five 'Indiejanen' to fell, bum, clean, and plant a bread-garden; paid to each 'Indiejan' 'live' yards salempouris, two woodsman's knives, two mirrors, tow fine razors, two shears, two trumpets, two fine combs, two coarse combs, some pins and needles, some steel hooks, three strings of beads [ die mast 'cralen'], two strings fine black beads, and one string fine white beads - this is payment for one garden. 

January 31st, 1774 - The common Caribs (Indigenous Chiefs) having already been sufficiently rewarded at the time of the revolt, [with hats and silver tipped canes because the Indigenous chiefs no longer desired the large silver breast plates of which they had many. We have, after due deliberation....[concluded] that it would be best to divide the salempouris and other trinkets amongst the Honorable Company's slaves who also distinguished themselves on that occasion, and who are therefore making continual and daily applications for rewards and presents. 

The above quotes are from "British Guiana Boundary: Arbitration with the United States of Venezuela", Volume IV, 1769-1781, Published Unknown. 

Splinter's Inventory:

New Netherland inventories are very helpful because they tend to be very particular often including a color and the textile, this trait mellows but seems to be carried forward into the New York colony in the July 1722 inventory of "Gertye" (Wessells) Splinter. Splinter was the widow of the cordwainer Abraham Splinter (B. 1684 - D. 1721). They are found to be witness to a baptism of Brent who's parents were Jacob Brat and "Aefje" Wessels, held in the Dutch reformed church. While Abraham was a shoemaker with his workroom noted as a separate room from the shop, Gertye appears to have ran the store. In her shop located in New York City we see the following:

25 1/2...yards Cotton 2/p          2.11.0
2 Ps.....'Callicoa' 10/ p ps          4.16.0
52.........Cotton handkerchiefs   4.11.0
4 1/4.....Pouris Blue "Callicoa"   0.03.8
5...........yards Blue "Linnon"       0.13.1 1/2
4 1/4.....yards Striped Cotton e Linnon [the stripe is cotton] 0.2.10
4 1/4.....[pounds?] Cotton Yarn   0.08.6
100.......L Cotton Wool                4.03.4

Sometimes, when a solid colored fabric is mentioned as being "cotton" it is pointed out that the town of Kendal in England made what was termed "Kendal Cotton" which is a brushed fuzzy wool fabric. The recorder of Splinter's inventory used the popular term "Pouris" to ensure the reader understood that this was cheap blue dyed 100% cotton, not to be mistaken for more expensive woolen, linen, painted calico, printed calico or just plain calico in white. The blatant use of "cotton" for the cotton handkerchief avoids the term calico and any implications of printing all together. 

We can see in the following inventory that local merchants who imported goods, such as Lisbet van Eps of Albany 1683 made distinctions between her fabrics. The original inventory is in Dutch. The Dutch did not have the term "Cotton" for wool fabrics. However, in the inventory below, we can see that when cotton was used for a wool, she simply used the term Kendal cotton.

5 3/4 el.........Carsey
6 1/2 el.........Fine Laken
2 ps..............'Blauen' Bay
11 el..............Kendal Cotton
91 el..............'Blau' Cotton
20 1/4 el........'geprint' [printed] Cotton
3 1/4 el..........sits [chintz]
1....................Cotton petticoat
1....................Cotton chimney valance

What is great about Van Eps's inventory as it shows that there was a distinction between "cotton wool" which is a brushed wool and cotton from the plant. It also shows that there is a difference between for instance "cotton", "blue cotton", "printed cotton" and "chintz cotton" so we know that the "blue cotton" is not printed nor chintz leaving few other options of what it could be. The "1 cotton petticoat" is not kendal cotton wool, nor a chintz or printed calico. It is likely simply white. 

An 1683 inventory from NYC shows the following, "4 ell of Painted Calico", "8 ells of striped calico", and "11 ells and a quarter of 'Cours' blew Calico", "6 ells and a quarter of Painted Calico" and "one painted flowered cotton "cloat" for a chest". Here we can see a distinction is made between painted, striped and "coarse blue calico".  Due to the quote mentioned in "Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620-1740" above we know that Pouris is referred to historically as a "coarse fabric".  

The above gives us two good references in NYC plus a maybe in Albany. 


What can white or blue cotton be used for? 

White is the easier of the two as it is found in aprons, drawers, shirts, handkerchiefs, cravats, caps, under petticoats (Image), waistcoats ( Image ), linings (Image )  ... and stockings ( Image ) in New York inventories whether in big cities or small towns. White cotton is being used everywhere white linen is being used... but to a lessor extent. A number of garments in solid white cotton fabric have survived in the Netherlands, in part because they were embroidered, used as children's clothing or as lining. So far, I have seen few garments that have survived with solid blue cotton fabric in museums. There are three 1750-1800 garments lined in solid blue cotton in the Netherlands. There is one very late 1775-1800 dressing robe with a blue cotton lining. The lining can be seen at the neck, though not easily, enough so that it can be seen that it matched the exterior blue, Image. 

Items labels "blue", "white" or "cotton" turn up early in inventories, however, blue linen and white cotton turn up more than blue cotton. This said, there happened to be a small merchant who died while importing a bulk load of shoes, canes, caps and "blue cotton".


Museum Rotterdam: 1750-1775: Pair of mittens of white cotton with border work

Inventories:

Idea Stoffelsen ran her own sheep wool farm and was the wife of the Commissary of Store for the WIC. Her 1641 inventory shows "4 new blue cotton aprons". Had these been made from printed calico the recorder would have likely stated "4 new blue sits aprons", sits is chintz. Blew aprons whether from linen or cotton was not unusual during the 17th century. In 1651, we can see "One package of blue cotton" in the inventory of Jacob Rooy who was importing a shipment with shoes, canes and, "...3 boys caps, one pair of green stockings, four remnants, or pieces of cotton,...". Again, if this was printed it would be labeled as so because painted and printed calicos cost more. Also, if this was an expensive import from England it would have been mentioned. Both above inventories were in Dutch which helps with the "Katoen" vs. "Kendal Cotton" issue. 


White Cotton Lining: A long jacket for women called a "went­ke" specific to the Netherlands, 1725 - 1750, Nederlands Openluchtmuseum: Lining in white cotton: Vrouwenjas of ‘wentke’ van Indiase sits uit circa 1725-1750, gedragen in Hindeloopen. De jas is gevoerd met wit katoen. 

The 1651 inventory of  Jan Jansen Damen includes "1 cotton cravat,...2 reels of spun cotton" and knitted items. Cotton for children is also seen, 1657, Kit Davidts at Fort Orange, "7 cotton swathing cloths". The 7 cotton drawers found in the 1685 inventory of van Horen were likely white calico or salempouris blanc, of these "three calico white drawers" belonged to her husband. Van Horen's inventory also mentioned "5 pairs of white calico stockings". Also, in their chamber we get a sense on how they used their cotton and linen fabrics, "2 'paire' women Calico gloves", "8 ditto long 'Callico' 'Towells'", "16 curtains of 'Linnen' before glass windows", "2 ditto Calico Striped", "11 'callico' 'smoks'", "13 mens shirts calico", "3 linen mens shirts", "3 linen sheets...", "1 ditto [calico] spread lined with white calico". While it is possible it became fashionable to wear printed shifts and shirts, they were more likely plain white. The pair of women's Calico gloves however were possibly printed as a number of women's gloves have survived in printed/ painted calico in European museums. Alternatively, we see in the same inventory "2 'blew' calico mix checker valance"... or blue striped checkered on white background.


A Cotton men's shirt dated at the center front to "1764", Nederlands Openluchtmuseum

Cotton men's shirt from the Kampereiland. The number 12 shows that this shirt was part of a set of 12 shirts. The shirt was made in 1764 and it belonged to a man with the initials 'D R'.

Both men and women had "shirts" and "undershirts". Above is a "shirt" here is a Link to a cotton undershirt. The undershirt is worn over the shirt, but under a jacket. The 1693 inventory of Elizabeth van Eps of Albany who traded goods with the local indigenous population has 1 colored woman's petticoat, 1 purple ditto, 1 black silk petticoat, 1 stuff women's petticoat, 1 cotton ditto... the inventory is in Dutch so there is no doubt that the cotton petticoat was anything other than a cotton fabric and not a brushed woolen. 

Interestingly, when the term cotton is used above, it presumes white unless otherwise stated. When calico is used it is presumed printed unless stated as being white or blue.



Q & A:

If there was blue what about red or other colors ?

Strange as it sounds, despite India having a variety of dyes, economic books have only written about plain fabrics in blue, red and purple plus white and black. Most towns are making "Guinee" blue or white plus "diverse types" such as striped or checked. There is also solid red muslin (called "beatilha" or Golconda) and solid purple cotton fabric like the Pouris mentioned in these books. Red cotton fabric also turns up in New York often enough it is an option for reenactors. A purple petticoat is in one inventory, whether it was cotton or wool is unknown. Though, if red and blue turn up in New York it is likely someone had purple. There is a solid black called "canequins". 

While limited in color choice, this does open the door up a little for reenactors and historic sites for the 17th and 18th century. For those looking for authenticity sticking with solid blue, red, purple and white would be reasonable. I have not seen evidence for solid green, yellow, orange, brown or black... at least for New York. If these same items are listed in the Netherlands they would likely also be accessible to New York buyers as a number of families in New York (and Albany) were making purchases in Amsterdam even during English sovereignty. 

This Link shows a fabric sample card with solid colored fabrics made in India. Unfortunately, I don't know which of the solid colored ones are 100% cotton, 100% silk or blend of cotton and silk. But it does provide the tone and shades available. Note the sites claims black was also available.