Playing Little Merchants

"This small Adventure I send to please a little boy & Girl who want to be merchants as soon as they can speak like their play fellows the Dutch Children here." -  New York 1724

It is not unusual for visitors or new immigrants to notice that New Yorkers whether in Albany or Manhattan raise their kids a bit differently. Observers note that the children are raised with a sense of "industry" but also fun. The parents intended to instill two very important lessons 1) they needed to make time for  trade or mercantile-play just as much as 2) the parent needed to make time for fun-play. This tendency for New Yorkers to strike a balance between fun-playtime and little merchant-playtime in childhood, regardless of gender, may have been the fertilizer for the future mega-merchants that would rule over the massive warehousing businesses that would eventually lead to the stock exchange and Wall St.

The citizens of the Netherlands, New Netherlands and even English New York did something rather surprising with their children. They got it in their heads that 1) children were not little adults, 2) a proper parent reserves time specifically for both "free playtime" and "modeling playtime" and 3) little ones could be trusted with money !

Note in the images and records that it appears that playing little merchants or simply being sent to the store to make small purchases is a genderless play activity that seems to start when they are old enough to reach up over the counter to hand over the payment.

Job Berckheyde (Dutch, 1630 - 1693)
The Bakery Shop, c. 1680 Here

The Idea of Playtime 1)  Free Play and 2) Modeling Adult Behavior Play:

The macro - or umbrella - idea is that children are not little adults, and need child size toys and actives for them to practice with, including both free playtime and modeling playtime to model adult behavior where mistakes can be made without major consequence; which is different than a child producing a tangible result with child labor or apprenticeship.

The "playtime revelation", as we'll call it, was developed during the 17th Century in the Netherlands and is unique to this region. This idea was first emphasized in the book, "Houwelyck" with the first chapter titled "Kinder-spel" published in 1618 by the Dutch author Jacob Cats (1577–1660). This book not only describes reserving time for play, but also provided images. It is important to point this out because often the 18th Century is cited as the time when "people" began to think of children as children and not little adults. However, it is roughly from the time of the publication of the Houwelyck book in 1618 that this is accurate and practiced by the average person in the Netherlands, New Netherland and New York during the 17th Century.

The Strong Museum of Play in Rochester, New York recently acquired a 17th century copy of the book and the images are available on-line Here. I recommend reading this article as it explains the unique culture of the Dutch. Even today, the State of New York is obsessed (relative to many states) with child welfare, the installation of a multitude of playgrounds, and even a museum dedicated to children at play. For those not familiar with New York, the State has provided free pre-school for 4 year olds since 1997, all children are covered by medical insurance since 2008 and New York City deemed it a necessity that every child in the city should not have to walk more than 10 minutes to find a green space, paying for it with public funds.

In addition to the below, ninepins, backgammon, ticktack and ball games were forbidden on the sabbath according to court records, plus checker boards are found in 17th and 18th inventories and marbles and dice are found in both NN and NY archeological digs:

Account Left by Josua and Mordakay Emriques 1st January 1656 (Shipped to NN):

24 dozen spinning tops that cost me 25 a dozen. That comes to a 2 lb. sack of sugar per spinning top.

4 gross [bell] rattles are 48 dozen that cost me 200 lb. sack of sugar per gross. That comes to a 17 lb. sack of sugar per dozen.

Monsieur Van Imbroch, Town of Kingston, NY a doctor, 1665: 

One childs chain of braided black and white sea-wan [trade beads] 

Sybrant van Schaick of Rensselaerswyck, a brewer, 1686:  

1 N.B. a little coral chain for Catie

Cornelius Steensyck, Mayor of Albany, and Merchant, 1686: 

Gold Child's whistle 

One children's ship 

One child's chest

Garret Jansen Roos, NYC, Carpenter, 1698: 

A whistle 

Peternela Tenycke, NYC, Shop Keeper, 1724: 


23 Joynted Babies .........................................................................1:3:0

A Parasoll of Toyes broken and whole .........................................2:0:0

A parasol of Small looking Glasses & Toy Pictures * ..................2:0:0

One "flaybanib", 1 bottle** e Sundry Toys .......................................5:0:6

A parcel of Toys.............................................................................0:7:7

*  In another section there is 1 small picture the words match up, possibly for doll house.
** Nipples for feeding babies have been found in archeological digs in the Albany region.


How affordable were those 23 jointed babies for 1:3:0? Well we can see that 27 stone jugs cost 2 pounds (or 27 jugs for 40 shillings or 480 pence). Also based on a 1722 inventory some comparisons are as follows: 16 yards of check [linen] 1:4:0, 13 and a quarter white flannel 1:3:2, 33 pairs of gloves for all sorts 2:0:0, 15 woolen caps 1:1:0 and a pair of men's worsted stockings. A 1719 inventory has 12 pairs of Boys stockings 1:4:0 and 14 yards red & white calico for 2:6:0 and 'imbosed' petticoat at 0:4:0. Considering a pair of men's stockings cost 0:5:0 and an 'imbosed' petticoat 0:4:0 we can see that this little dolls were relatively affordable and cost less than a pair of men's stockings or woman's petticoat. 23 Jointed babies for 1:3:0 or 23 shillings or 276 pence, 1 jointed baby at one shilling or 12 pence. For reenactors, it seems that the child of a farmer was just as likely to own a doll as a large estate owner. The main difference, based on one letter, is that a large estate holder may have silver miniature doll accessories for their child's doll, and a farmer's child may have little wooden tables and accessories for her doll. In either case, the kid would still have a doll at these prices. More interestedly, most as in the majority of kids would have the same quality doll because they were only a shilling per doll and being bought from a few shops.

Below an example of a toy and middle class family at a tavern: Jan Steen, Couple Dance, 1663

Later, as the French entered the 18th Century enlightenment they will adopt the idea that children need playtime and are not little adults; see Rousseau's classic book Emile published 1758. This is something we will come back to as how children are raised is not the only thing the French adopted from 17th Century Dutch which includes the fontage lace headbands and the robe that the shopkeeper above is wearing in the first painting which had become popular in the Netherlands by 1658 according to primary sources.

What we can see from quotes and documents is that while the idea of a child centered family is not invented by the Dutch (it was becoming universal in the 16th and 17th century),  they quantified and developed it into a system. Two types of  play were first developed in the Netherlands; 1) "playtime" with toys for fun and 2) "modeling" adult activities play such as making purchases and playing little merchant. This style of child rearing was imported to New Netherland and instilled to the point that after English sovereignty, it continued to be a part of many children's lives in New York.

Below is a thesis paper on children during the Dutch Golden Age with emphasis on the development of childhood and the influence of humanist ideals. The introduction gives a good overview for general understanding of why and what was developing in the Netherlands was so different.

"Constructions of Childhood in the Dutch Golden Age and Pedagogical Theory in the Dutch Republic as Reflected in Children’s Portraiture: The Dog Motif, The Apple Attribute, and the Meaningfulness of the Dutch Rinkelbel" Here.

Interestingly, something that is not found in probate inventories are bodices or stays for small children. This type of clothing was used by some parents in the hopes that their children will have straight backs and good posture. However, they can be mildly restrictive and possibly part of the reason they have not yet been found in New York inventories prior to the French and Indian War. Additionally, children in New Netherland and New York were not usually apprenticed until about 12 or 14 years old, having long childhoods seemingly with few chores. This free roaming childhood may have contributed to healthy bodies as there was a lack of restriction and repetitive movement.

There are a number of court cases where children are described as running through farmer's fields, playing outside the home, and other activities but not doing chores. There are a couple accounts about   low income families where the parents cannot afford to keep their children. The child is apprenticed at less than 12 years old but regularly runs away back to the parents and the parents reprimand the master for having hit their child.


Some Background and The Landscape:

Here, it is important to point out that most western nations were developing a concept of family that is different than in the middle ages. What would emerge are families where the ideal is "self-contained" (grand parents, parents, children, etc) vs. "extended" (includes 2nd. and 3rd. cousins, etc.). In addition to family make up,  children become "part of the family's purpose". An easy way to think of 17th Century families is vertical (which can include aunts and uncles who often take in orphaned related children and leave inheritances to nieces and nephews) vs. horizontal (2nd and 3rd cousins are living near each other or doing business together). Looking back we don't always notice the "reason for", but do see the end result. How were these children treated? How were expectations instilled - or more accurately enticed into?  In essence, how were children educated? How educations were given or the methods used are where the variations emerge, but are due to specific reasons.

The two ends of the spectrum appear to be the Dutch and the Puritan ways of education with the Dutch preferring "the carrot", playtime and followed by short 3-4 yr trade apprenticeships to the Puritan's literal use of "the stick" and long 7-8 yr trade apprenticeships.

"The Puritan family in England or the American colonies was seen as an institution based on ensuring the salvation of family members by proper education in the rules of good behaviour and the importance of faith. This responsibility was seen as resting primarily with the father, who was seen as the head of the household in religious as well as economic terms. The need was to ‘school’ the child in correct behaviour using appropriate punishments... to enforce discipline. Children were seen as inherently sinful and in need of guidance. At the extreme they were compared to wild animals whose spirit needed to be broken in order that they might develop the humility and obedience which would lead them to be good Christians (Ozment 1983)." - Histories of Childhood by John Clarke

"Not all families followed this extreme model, even in Protestant communities. Simon Schama describes seventeenth-century (Protestant) Holland as a society ‘besotted with the children’, where the idea of children and their pastimes played a major part in family life and in art (Schama 1987: 495)." - Histories of Childhood by John Clarke

"For the great mass of the population of Western European countries like Britain and France, children’s lives were characterized by poverty, hard labour and exploitation. This set up a contradiction which was to dominate writing and thinking about child- hood through the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. There was a contradiction between a romantic idealized view of childhood rooted in eighteenth-century Enlightenment and the brutal reality of most children’s lives." - Histories of Childhood by John Clarke

This is something we inherited from the Netherlands, and was practiced here in New Netherland and amazingly survived into English New York. While there would be many children that experience poverty in this colony, there was obviously a strong preference for creating ways for children to have a childhood which included charity and orphanages rather than work houses.

Below: abt. 1670 - A Poulterer's Shop - Gerrit Dou - https://www.wikiart.org/en/gerrit-dou/a-poulterer-s-shop

There is possibly a solid reason for the carrot method being used by the Dutch... these children were not being groomed solely for religious reasons (though it is noted that Dutch schools used religious books as daily reading material) but because they were part of a "family business". We have to remember, many families had mothers who grew food and sold it at market. Mothers were shop keepers or even merchants who owned ships, but also tavern keepers, tailors and shoemakers. This meant that children were part of the family business simply because mom was. There are actually very few images of children "helping" around the house and plenty of images of children running wild; playing cards, blowing bubbles, playing with spinning tops, and torturing their cats... plus a number a them going to the store to "practice" shopping.

Note the woman wants to sell him the one in her hand, and the kid points to a different one. Ode vrouw met haring en een jongen in een venster. Ook wel genoemd: de haringverkoopster. ca. 1650-1675. Pushkin Museum, Moscow.

This idea of placing not just a shopping money in the hands of children but an accounting book and expectation of making transactions has been part of New York's culture since the 17th Century. In 1724 Colwalder Colden records he makes mention of the Dutch children playing little merchants. However, It is important to note that by the 1700s, whether one was Dutch-Dutch, Walloon-Dutch, German-Dutch, Norwegian-Dutch, Swedish-Dutch, etc was not as clear as the previous century. Essentially, we could guess that all those people who had arrive prior to the English taking Sovereign control in 1674 were likely sharing a culture. This founding culture will survive English sovereignty and into the 18th Century.

It is one that the Englishmen Cadwallander Colden is willing to adopt.

To Mr. John Falconer Mercht. in London,

... Enclos'd you have a Bill of Excha. on Mr. David Mitchel at 30 days sight drawn by your Governor which I have endorsed to you...the remainder on my Own Acct. This small Adventure I send to please a little boy & Girl who want to be merchants as soon as they can speak like their play fellows the Dutch Children here. I know this consignment is but a small matter to trouble you with Yet I do not doubt you will take care to buy the following goods mention'd underneath to our best advantage. 

Envoy of Goods to be sent to Cadwallader Colden at New York as advice P. viz. 

6 ps Striped Narrow "Callemineos" } Lively colors but not Taudry *
12 ps Striped "Cambletts" } [same] **
1 ps black Broad Cloath about 12 s p yd } Let the "Cloaths" be substantial & well thickened
1 ps Drab colour Do about 20 s p yd} [same]
1 ps Do about 7 s p yd } [same]
6 ps good Sheldon viz. 2 ps of the same colour w/ each ps of "cloth" Sheldon of the fineness I intend come about
[... Continues...]

- Cadwallader Colden, New York May 4th, 1724

It is noted that Colden's daughter, though she did not grow up to be a merchant, became Ameria's first food scientist, second Botanist and would go on to apply Linnaean system (an analytical scientific system) for describing 300 different species of plants in New York. The organizational skills, and knowing when to ask the right questions likely developed during her little merchant years and seems to have benefited her. 

Along with some documentation and paintings, a rather interesting surviving example of how parents teach their children the workings of playing little merchant has survived, while easy to miss. A doll house owned by Petronella Oortman includes many rooms of a house... including what could be Mr. Oortam's parlor or office. In the office is both "Mr. Oortman" doll and a middle class man - a small merchant or shop keeper - likely settling accounts. With the middle class man is a similarly dresses little boy, a doll who's clothing clearly does not match up with the wealthier merchant son's clothes. We can see through Oortman's eyes her perspective on 1680s Netherlands. The doll-child's relative height appears to be similar to those children portrayed in paintings making purchases at stores. See image here.

An example of this culture surviving after the colonial era, is shown in an account by Mr. Rockafeller who lived in up-state New York. Mr. Rockefeller would give his son a little note book and a $1.50 allowance. Every time he made a purchase he was to record the amount spent. His son would present these little book to his parents, for praise and the rules were clear and repeatable. Interestedly, just as the Dutch were famous for their negotiations and contracts, this agreement was recorded as follows:

Memorandum between PAPA and JOHN. Regarding an Allowance.
1. Beginning with May 1st, John’s allowance is to be at the rate of One dollar and fifty cents ($1.50) per week.
2. At the end of each week during which John has kept his accounts accurately and to Papa’s satisfaction, the allowance for the succeeding week will be increased ten cents (10¢) over the week just ended, up to but not beyond a total per week of two dollars ($2.00).
3. At the end of each week during which John has not kept his accounts accurately and to Papa’s satisfaction, the allowance for the succeeding week shall be reduced ten cents (10¢) from the week just ended.
4. During any week when there have been no receipts or expenditures to record the allowance shall continue at the same rate as in the preceding week.
5. During any week when the account has been correctly kept but the writing and figuring are not satisfactory the allowance shall continue at the same rate as in the preceding week.
6. Papa shall be the sole judge as to whether an increase or a decrease is to be made.
7. It is understood that at least Twenty Per cent (20%) of the allowance shall be used for benevolences.
8. It is understood that at least Twenty Per cent (20%) of the allowance shall be saved.
9. It is understood that every purchase or expenditure made is to be put down definitely and clearly.
10. It is understood that John will make no purchases, charging the same to Mama or Papa, without the special consent of Mama, Papa or Miss Scales [a family governess].
11. It is understood that when John desires to make any purchases which the allowance does not cover, he will first gain the consent of either Mama, Papa, or Miss Scales, who will give him sufficient money with which to pay for the specific purchases, the change from which, together with a memorandum showing what items have been bought and at what cost and what amount is returned, is to be given to the person advancing the money, before night of the day on which the purchases are made.
12. It is understood that no governess, companion or other person in the household is to be asked by John to pay for any items for him, other than carfare.
13. To any savings from the date in this account which John may from time to time deposit in his bank account, in excess of the twenty per cent (20%) referred to in Item No. 8, Papa will add an equal sum for deposit.
14. The allowance above set forth and the agreement under which it shall be arrived at are to continue in force until changed by mutual consent. 

The above agreement approved and entered into by
John D. Rockefeller, Jr.
John D. Rockefeller 3rd

Smithsonian Magazine: See article here.

The children of New Netherland and New York are being taught from a young age the How-To of playing "little merchants" and may have been the precursor to our modern Lemonade stand; which is distinct and different from apprenticeships. They are opportunities for pre-teenaged children to "play" with real money, real accounting books, and real transactions. The accounting books seem to be as important as the transaction and valued as much as doing the deal. While they don't seem to be taught the savings part, they are consistently exposed to the charity part. The idea that the parents of both New Netherland and New York purposely set time aside to play at little merchants is a defining point of child rearing and cultural difference.


BONUS Painting:

Two more paintings Here and Here and a little kid possibly on her first mission not doing so well Here. A short article on the first Lemonade stand about 130 years ago Here.

1650-75: "The Grocery Shop", 1672 ~ Gerrit Dou - Shopkeeper in background behind counter, shop maid in red jacket, a young customer with bucket.

Instead of buying fabric and trying to have your kids sell it like colonial times, try the little merchant idea out in modern ways 1) At the grocery store, hand a toddler in a grocery cart seat the money for  the groceries to hand over to the clerk. 2) Try a Lemonade stand 3) When they are about 8 years old or older hand them $10, $15 or $20 at the start of the month (not week) and a small account book. Show them how to write their name, date and the amount given to them at the top. Then each week recount what they spent in a list.  (So they don't fall behind or wait too long and forget.) Then explain that the accounting book has to be turned in to you in order to receive their next allowance. When accounting is the only hoop they have to jump through, they will catch on quickly. The most amazing part... they develop patients ! 4) A separate payment for work done can be given like a monthly car detailing shop in the driveway where they earn $5 for cleaning out the car... and you play along as customer. Or put little one's to work making popsicles and you purchase them for a quarter each. Or with no money involved, instead of playing house or similar... play grocery store with pretend money and don't forget to remind them to sort and organize the food stuffs. It all adds up to skills that will get them ahead and doing math in their heads.

Vikings in New York and Delaware

"I would also like a chest with Faroese [ Island ] Stockings because these are the best goods to wet people's appetite for the [rest of the] ship's cargo." - 1648

While Viking era settlements are common in Europe, they have also been located in the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland and more recently Newfoundland. Though, one has not been found in New York or Delaware, yet. However, their decedents, textiles and even garments start arriving in Manhattan and are shipped up to Fort Orange in the 1630s. Seems like a "stretch", I know, to use the term Viking but...

While the raiding of other peoples comes to an end in the 12th century, their culture and material goods continue on up to the 17th century. Unfortunately for the 18th century, access to these good diminish greatly after the New Netherland era. As it appears, the early settlers were not the only ones placing a value on these garments, Native Americans found them practical too. This gives the 17th Century reenactor something different to explore and add to their kit. 

Below: Satellite image showing a rough path from Norway to the tiny Faroe islands near Scotland. Then the small island of Iceland (green) and the snow covered island of Greenland (white) before making it all the way to Newfoundland, about 2,650 miles. Another 800 miles and they would have made it to Manhattan. 

Nordic Settlers:

Norwegen settlers were being recruited for the Rennsealear Colony during the 17th Century. Here are a few examples of those who came over and settled in New Netherland, specifically Rensselaer. 

1631, By de Eendracht, Sailed from the Texel shortly after July 7, 1631

Laurens Laurensz the Norman, from Copenhagen, engaged for three years to erect a sawmill

Barent Thonisz from "Heijligesont" [ Hellesund, on the south coast of Norway], engaged for three years to build a sawmill.

1637, By the Rensselaerswyck, Sailed from the Texel, October 8, 1636

Albert Anderiesz, from "Frederikstad" with wife "Annettje" Barents [in the southeast of Norway] erects a mill and is a tobacco planter, and rents two mills on Normans Kill. They leave 8 children.

"Arent" Andriesz, Noorman, tobacco planter brother to Albert Andries above.

Carsten Carstens, Noorman, Farm laborer, sawyer, stave splitter, mill hand and roof thatcher and later later a produce gardener. 

The pre-1664 population: 5% of the population was from Norway, another 3% from Sweden and 1% from Denmark. From my understanding this does not include New Sweden.  While we all know many Nordic persons settled New Sweden, we can see that while low in number had a presence from Delaware and Pennsylvania to Manhattan to Albany, New York. 

People from Nordic nations continue to arrive in small numbers but consistently throughout the 17th Century under both Dutch and later English Sovereignty. This continues into the 18th Century with people such as Jacob, son of Jacob Wickenberg of Coreby, Sweden, a sailor in 1732; Peter Johanson, from Bergen, Norway; and Lauren "Roloffson" from Copenhagen, Denmark. However, it wasn't just people being imported from the Nordic Nations or their colonies. A side note: Nordic includes the Scandie nations of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark plus Finland. 

A Textile Called "Vaðmál", Vadmal or Wadmal:

When we think of the Vikings, the era from 793 - 1050AD is that standard range. However, the colonies established by these same Vikings, continue on in a semi-isolated Islands. The Faroe Island, Iceland and Greenland have the same people producing the same textiles and garments they have been since their early settlement, with historians extending the Viking era into the 14th century for these regions. It gets better, simply because they hung on to their Viking style garments and textiles right into the 17th century, when their stockings, Norse Kersey and even the infamous "vaðmál" (wadmal) show up in New Netherland. 

In 1638, kersey from Norway was being imported.

Honor be to God, this day 28, April 1638, in Amsterdam Loaded in the ship called Het Weapon van "Noorweegen" for the colony of Rensselaerwyck, these following goods...

1 an East India chest in which Norwegian kersey, canvases, linen and divers other goods for the needs of the human body.

(Please forgive terms such as "Vaðmál" being in quotes, auto-attack has not been cooperative.) 


The kersey that shows up in Rensselaerwyck, arrives on a ship from Norway, with Norwegian passengers and Norwegian goods. It does make a pit stop in the Netherlands prior to landing in New Netherland but it is clearly an early account of a coarse thread 2/2 twill weave textile that was likely "fulled" and originated in Norway. The reason I suggest it was likely "fulled" is because the Dutch recorder noted it as a Kersey which are fulled, however, I have not found a source for kersey being made in Norway. Was this the textile called "vaðmál" which also happens to be a coarse thread 2/2 twill weave that is sometimes fulled? To get a sense of what the Norse kersey was, considering there is little evidence of "kersey" being woven in Norway we can look to another sources. In the sources below the original would have read "vadmal" in Swedish records. 

1911: The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware, 1638-1664, By Amends Johnson, 

Joen Skraddare was undoubtedly a tailor, as his nick-name indicates,... Brown or gray wadmal and duffel, linen and frieze were the most common cloth, in fact almost the only kind shipped here for the need of the settlers and from this their garments were made. The retail cost of these materials from 1643 until 1654: 1. Frieze, four florins a yard. 2. Duffel, four florins a yard. 3. Linen cloth, one florin a yard. 4. Wadmal, twelve stivers a yard. 

Norse textiles continue to be imported after the earlier shipments. In 1647, The Swan was loaded with items from Holland in Stockholm, which included "several hundred yards of wadmal" and stockings, then set sail from Sweden. During this same time, a New Sweden soldier's purchase oder gives the following, "4 yards of wadmal a 13 stivers 0:2:8". (B. Monatg., 1642-1656, Jonsson's account) 

1655: Report of Governor Johan "Risingh" June 14, 1655 page 161.

Moreover, all the cargoes needed here,...can also be made up from supplies of the Compay at home in Sweden; and since linen, fine and coarse can be bought for a cheap price, and wadmal and hards also,... for there would be a splendid gain to be secured from these goods from every country, especially here in America,...

The Viking era was roughly between 793 - 1050AD and centered around Norway; with the Faroe islands being settled by 800 AD, Iceland in 874 and Greenland in 980s. For places such as Greenland and Iceland their "Viking age" continues to the 14th Century. Catholic churches begin appearing about 1015AD in Norway. During this time a fabric called "vaðmál", which was a 2/2 twill produced on a warp weight loom, was one of the most common wool textiles available for warmth. A 2/2 twill weaves include kersey (a "fulled" textile) and serge (a twill-woolen blended textile), which can also appear in patterns such as birdseye or herringbone. Additionally, Vaðmál could be "fulled" but archeological finds suggest that this was not as common as non-treated. The coarse version is called "gjaldavoo" at 9-10 warps per cm and the finest called "smavoo" at 13-14 warp threads per cm. It may have been a precursor to fulled Kersey being made in England.

"Vaðmál" (vadmål, wadmal) was produced to specific standards by the 12th century due to it being used as a currency in places such as Iceland, Ireland, Sweden, etc. It was set to a specification of 98.4cm wide or two ells, which also meets England's import requirements. Shipments of this textile continue throughout the middle ages. In 1596, a ship in an English port, having returned from Iceland, had 640 yards of "vaðmál", 240 "vaðmál" socks, 720 "vaðmál" mittens and 18 "vaðmál" cassocks. This is in contrast to Greenland who's "vaðmál" evolved to become warmer using a warp dominated (higher count) weave over time. Greenland exported more stockings and mittens than cloth. The fabric was not limited to 98.4 cm wide. A 12th-13th century loom was discovered in Greenland to have enough notches on its long beam to produce a 147.6 cm wide fabric.  

Interestingly, when twills are found in American archeological sites the thread used in the textile can be used to determine the region of origin and what type of twill it is. Thread is spun either clockwise or counterclockwise, sometimes the warp and welt yards are spun in the same direction sometimes the opposite. The combination is specific to both region and can change over time. 

"Vaðmál" was very popular during the Viking era and continues to be exported from Iceland into the 17th century, but by the later middle ages it is considered and usually purchased by poorer persons. See the following study on "vaðmál". The above info is from Weaving Wealth Cloth and Trade in Viking Age and Medieval Iceland. However, it seems that over time, while "Vaðmál" remains a coarser quality, higher thread count versions emerge. 

Additional information on archeological digs and textiles can be found in Tools and Textile Production in the North Atlantic.

"Hafnarvoamal could comprise several different qualities, such as merkurvoamal..., used in better clothes, carpets, bed covers and the like. ... while merkurvaomal, the commonest type of hafnarvaomal, cost two and a half times more." 

For New Sweden and New Netherland era reenactors and historic sites, consider including 2/2 twill woven woolens in a low thread count as capes, blankets, doublets and even leggings. This is a fun topic, how a textile made popular by the Vikings was still being produced in their former colonies well into the 17th century AND were the fabrics that got many of the first settlers through those early American winters. "Vaðmál" and our friend Laken were the workhorses of winter and rainy weather textiles.

You can find great pictures of how this textile is woven on Arachne's blog. Vix a weaver of historic textiles and took on the challenge of weaving wadmal.

Mittens and shoes made from fabric that is cut and sewn together, likely our twilled fabric. Link.

Nordic Stockings: 

Imported Icelandic and Faroe [Island] stockings are also found in the colony. The knitting industry was introduced to these islands through the early Viking settlements. Faroe stockings have a shoe like bottom (flat bottom), and are twice the thickness of a typically knitted stocking. In 1648 Govert (Governor) Loockermans sends a letter requesting that his wife sends stockings for him to sell in New Netherland. "I would also like chest with Faroese Stockings because these are the best goods to wet people's appetite for the [rest of the] ship's cargo." In 1651, Damen, a brewer, New Amsterdam, has "13 pairs of Faroe Stockings" in his inventory and were likely for sale. 

In these settlements, knitting was an industry primary performed by women. In 1624, Iceland exported 72,000 pairs of stockings and 12,000 pairs of mittens according to the book "Traditional Scandinavian Knitting" by Sheila McGregor. The book includes images and grids for knit patterns for the Faroe Islands and Iceland. See link to the book in the right margin of this site. 

In November of 1653 in the Council Mintutes orders were given to appraise incoming immigrants material goods. To ensure consistency, the most common items were assign valuations of which the first there items are as follows:

A pair of men's shoes, size 8 to 12 at 3.5 florin, a pair of Icelandic Stockings at 38 stivers, a firkin of soap at 20 guilders, etc...

This was followed by fixed pricing  in November of 1657, due to a high volume of sea-wan, and lower volume of beaver which are being used as currency. The prices were set for lower quality items. 

A quart of poor vinegar at 24 stivers, Oil at 3 to 4 guilders, Etc...Two quarts of home brewed beer 12 stivers, A pair of coarse Faroese stockings at 4 guilders etc...

Probate inventories turn up Norse Stockings too:

The 1665 Imbroch inventory from Wiltwick (Kingston) has both "filled (gevulde) stockings and iceland stockings"

The 1665 Reversion Inventory from Fort Orange (at center of Beverwijk Albany) has: "2 pair new Icelandic stockings, 2 pair old ditto"

So, we can see that there was a presence of both textiles and stockings from Nordic nations in the colony. The Nordic Kerseys are mentioned a few times, more so along the Hudson River, with wadmal mostly showing up in New Sweden, and Nordic Stockings due to their water resistance and warmth are found everywhere. They are also found in sailor's inventories. These islands also exported mittens and other items, while knit mittens turn up in inventories they are not mentioned to be Faroe or Icelandic. However, knitting needles are rarely found in inventories, leaving imported mittens as the main option. 

There is one other item, that though not explicitly said to be Nordic, I am guessing it was them that figured out how to produce such an item listed in a bill of landing: "46 pair of watertight leather shoes, averaging 23-1/2 stiv. a pair". They happen to be sent to Rensselaer, which is where the Nordic kerseys are being sent and Norse Stockings are found, so there may be a relationship. The Vikings had a waterproof leather or oilskin they used. Lastly, it seems that Norsemen and New Netherlanders were not the only ones that found these stockings useful. 

On the 10th of July 1657 several Native Americans deed Staten Island to "Lubbertus" van "Dincklaecken". The island was traded for dozens of different items among which included 

10 boxes of shirts; 10 ells of red checked cloth; 30 pounds of powder; 30 pairs of "Faroese" stockings;....etc.

Reenactors who portray soldiers and sailors can easily tap into any of the items mentioned above. As can be seen, the farmers and settlers on the Hudson and up in Albany had access to the same goods as those down in New Sweden. When looking at New Sweden, it seems that their suits made of leather and possibly duffle were complimented by Nordic kerseys, wadmal, and Icelandic and Faroese stockings. 

I hope you enjoyed this article and was as surprised as I was to learn that while it took a few extra generations, squarely Viking stockings and textiles made their way to the colony.