Wampum vs. "Seawan"

Many early 17th Century primary sources use the term Sea-wan to mean trade beads that are strung (like beads on a necklace) or in bundles (multiple strings). This term is used while under Dutch New Netherland and during 17th Century British New York.

The New Netherland era for this blog includes the time of the first permanent trading post in 1614 Wiltwijk on the Hudson, through to the time the English received sovereign control in 1667 and unto 1674. There is an argument that can be made for this era to include up to when the Dutch took back the territory for 15 months and finally ceding control again to the English in 1674. This timing will be explore in a follow up post; however, one of the main reasons for this is that prior to 1674, the English did not enforce British Common Law. This had a significant effect on the population after 1674 because it meant that many people's liberties enjoyed under Dutch Civil and Canon law were stripped in this one year. The lack of enforcement of English Common law up to this point, allowed the colony to continued to use Dutch civil law to solve legal and court cases which had an effect on personal incomes, property ownership, economics, and even how to address a person.

Sea-wan was used in documents from early in the region's settlement by Europeans; and is adopted from the local indigenous language. Later, when the British governors introduced the term wampum (from the Algonquin word wampumpeag meaning white shell beads) into legal documents, it was not easily adopted by the general public. Did the introduction of the term wampum into this colony by the governor displace the term sea-wan which was used by local Indigenous people and colonist?

It is noted that the primary records do not hyphenate sea-wan. However, when I type the term without a hyphen the spellcheck auto corrects it, even after I have saved the page. So, it is hyphenated to preserve understanding otherwise this post would read very differently. Sea-wan which is commonly used from Brooklyn to Albany; also appears as "Zee-wan" in early documents and "Se-want" particularly in the South River  (Delaware River) documents.


In the Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady court minutes for 1680-1685

Sample 1: Ordinary session held in New Albany, June 8, 1680, page 11 -12

Mr. Samual Winder, attorney for Capt. John Palmer, ... against Jan Ver Beek, defendant.

The plaintiff demands of the defendant the sum of 16 gl. [guilders] in beavers, showing by the journal and ledger of Mr John Winder, fol. 24, under date of October 5, 1665, that the defendant is indebted to that amount...

Idem, plaintiff, against Lambert van Valkenburg, defendant. The plaintiff demands of the defendant the sum of 28 gl. in sea-wan, showing by the books of Mr. Jan Winder, fol. 24,....

The hornoable court condemn the defendant to pay to the plaintiff or his order the sum of 28 gl. in sea-wan,...

Indem, plaintiff, against Jan Labatee, defendant.

The plaintiff demands of the defendant the sum of 21 gl. in sea-wan, showing by the books of Mr. John Winder, ....

(The terms Negro and Indian are copied from the primary sources and not my own.)


Sample 2: Extraordinary session held in Albany, July 24, 1682, page 274 - 277

Philip Schuyler complains to their honors [in court] in writing that on on the 20th of July last great harm was done to him... who in passing [by] left the gate open and called him names...  especially one called Naerenachteno, who threw a stone at his horse, wounding it above the eye, where upon his Negro, Jan, struck the said Indian.... [a fight followed].

The Indians answered:

1) That the mischief which occurred was not premeditated... They offer a belt, 7 [beads] high.

2) They are heartily sorry about the mischief... They offer a bundle of sea-wan.

3) They are very sorry that the Negro was wounded so badly... They offer two wampum belts, one 12 and the other 6 [ beads ] high.

4) They are ashamed of this mischief... They offer 1 belt of wampum.

5) It was very wrong of the Indian to abuse and scold Ph. Schuyler so... They offer 1 bundle of sea-wan.

Etc...

12 They have finished, but they give 2 belts for medicines or salves [ medicine bags ] to be put on the wound.

N.B It is found that the sea-wan offered by the Indians consists of 12 wampum belts, large and small; 4 bundles of sea-wan and 2 small strings woven belt wise, and 1 thing that is carried on the breast.


In Albany, NY we can see partial transition in terminology after the 1674 enforcement, though some time after.What is interesting about this transition is that the citizens and the courts continue to use sea-wan for individual strings of beads and for bundles of strung beads whereas; wampum is specifically used for trade beads made into a belt form. It is unknown if the local indigenous population decided to adopt the English governor's use of wampum. Despite this, the term sea-wan is used significantly more often than wampum in 1680-85. This implies that both the Indigenous People and colonist continued to use sea-wan in their day-to-day communications.

Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady records for British New York:

                             Sea-wan                   Wampum                 Wampum Belt

1668 - 1673:           261                             0                                 0
1675 - 1680:           462                             0                                 0
1680 - 1685:           438                             3                               13



Interestingly when Govoner Dogan writes to the magistrates of Albany, he uses the term wampum independently of "wampum belt", yet does not include the term sea-wan, strings of sea-wan or bundles of sea-wan in his address. He has yet to adopted to the terminology associated with the economy or currency. Here we can see a disconnect between the understood terminology used by the citizens and indigenous population and an imposed terminology introduced by the English governor. In 1684, the governor realizes that more than just trade beads are being used as money and includes "jewelry". However, the disconnect in terminology and language between the Governor and the colonist still remains.

Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady 1680-1685 , Page 475.

By the Governor [Dongan], 1684

Forasmuch as ye Present magistrates of ye Toune of Albanie, have made there Complaint, that it is a great Inconvenience and Damage both to ye trade of this Governt, and this town in Particular, that any wampum, wampum Pipes, Indian Jewells or money should be Transported out of this Government off N: York and Dependencies, it is therefore ordered, that no wampum, wampum Pipes, Indian Juwels or any sort off money, be Transported or carried out of this Government, and that no traders, merchants or any "oyr" Persones whatsoever shall in Exchange or Traffique, give sell or any other ways dispose of money, wampum or Indian Juwells to any Person who shall Carry them out of this Government. ...

However, records such as property purchases are still using sea-wan as a currency; sea-wan is cited as  still in use as currency in 1684. For the Early Records of Albany, Notarial Papers the term sea-wan is cited 99 times and zero times for wampum for the years 1660 to 1696.

Example from the Early Records of Albany, Notarial Papers 1 and 2, 1660 - 1696, page 576, is below.  

Contract of sale between Cornelis Michielsen and Jurriaen "Teunissen" [van] Tappen of the the farm called the "Klinckenbergh" 

On this 5th day of August 1684... Michietlsz acknowledges that he has sold to said Jurriaen Tunis all his interest in the land... pay to the seller or his order the sum of fifty whole, merchantable beaver skins in silver money, wheat, or sea-wan at beaver's price, in two payments... 

When we travel south to the South or Delaware River to the former New Amstel and New Sweden region, we see what appears to be confusion in terminology. Sea-wan is used in the same way as in Albany during the post 1674 enforcement of English Common law which requires all documents to be kept in English, but the citizens are interchanging belts of wampum and belts of sea-wan. It is noted that se-want is the preferred term for sea-wan in this region.

Delaware Papers The English Era

                         Sea-wan                       Wampum                    Wampum Belt

1664 to 1682:  18 (incl. belts/bands)    2  [1670]                      3   (1675 wampam & wamp.)


In the Delaware Papers during the English period, we see General Carr using the term wampum to include strung or bundles of sea-wan, but doesn't use the local definition of sea-wan. Note: In the same document we see non-government officials and recorders using the term se-want to represent sea-wan but not wampum in 1670.

Delaware Papers, English Period: Page 12

Relation from the Whorekill Concering Jan de Caper's Sloop, 1670

On the 20th of December 1670 a sachem of Nassawam, who lives near Sachomok, came here to this place... We asked for an Indian with a canoe to take us there which the sachem agreed to for 1  1/2 fathoms of black se-want.... we offered them ten fathoms of se-want and a blanket,...

In the same document but several records later in October 6th of 1670, on page 18, we can see Marten Roseman, Edman Kantwel, Pieter Cock, Pieter Rambo, Israel Helm and Matheus de Ringh, (clerk)  in their report picks up on the use of the term wampum... but don't seem to know how it factors into the language or how to use it as a reference. The letter was signed by "Matheus de Ring", Clerk.

Report of a meeting with Indians on the Delaware about a murder, 1670 

"... presented us with a small bundle of white se-want about 3 or 4 fathoms", They then gave us another bundle of white wampum adding these words.... Whereupon they also give the Mincquasen a gift, namely, a belt of se-want with a bundle of white se-want, ... We answered them, when we accepted this money or se-want, saying that when we accept this money or se-want we accept it..."

In the Delaware records, from 1664 to 1682, the term wampum is not generally used, appearing only 5 times. For historic museums, villages and reenactors this may be an interesting topic as is shows that when there is a disconnect between the soveriegn government and the population they are ruling over; the imposing of new terms from a different language can take an exceedingly long time.

For Albany, we can see that from the time the English seized control in 1664 to 1680 there was zero acquisition of the term wampum, and the 438 times the term sea-wan is used compare to the 15 times wampum is used demonstrates the barrier intrinsic to language and tradition can impose, lest it cause confusion during an economic trade. The people of Albany took it further, and relegated the term wampum to only beads in the form of a belt. The people of the Delaware River region were just as slow to change. However, we can see the court in New Castle making adjustments to use wampum as a currency (or valuation) between colonist in the same way we sea-wan is used as the base currency in the rest of the colony.

In 1675, we see a case adopt the use of wampum as if sea-wan, in that he uses the wampum as a "value" or currency. Page 64.

Gabriela Manville Plt. Contra Capt. John Carr Deft., New Castle , 1675

The plt. declares that this deft. became indented unto him in the "Yeare" 1671 for "Linning" Should unto him at New Yorke the Summe of f.521: wampum "Vallue" to be paid in Small "Furres" upon demand...

While the single case above shows that the British generals are using wampum  it does not seem to trickle down to the citizens; sailors, trades people, small merchants or even large merchants according to wills, deeds, and other primary sources. In the end, we can see that for the 1614 to 1696 there is likely difficulty adopting to new terminology; when the existing terms were being used on a day to day basis, between both the colonist with the Indigenous population and the colonist to colonist. It is possible that the use of sea-wan continued until the currency became displaced with bills.

Leather Breeches, Suspender and Girdle

Leather breeches can be found in continental Europe and in England. So, it is not surprising to see them in New Netherland and later British New York. They are also readily found in New England and possibly New Sweden. This is great for reenactors who are looking for something different for their kits. Though, less so for vegetarians like me but the reality was that at the time, leather breeches were available and used. (I especially like the one's linked to below.)

From early in the 17th Century both New Netherland and New England had leather breeches in their inventories. However, from the sample in the database, they do not turn up in the same manor. In New Netherland, leather breeches are often listed as if an alternative to the cloth/textile choice, or simply on their own. This rule of thumb is flipped when it comes to New Sweden (Delaware) and also New England, where leather breeches are found often - but not always - in suit form. There are a couple references stating that in New Netherland and New Sweden breeches are made from elkskin as compared to buck or otter skin jackets.

Also, how one secures one's breeches to their body, may be somewhat different between New Netherland as a whole and New England. However, for this last point there is only a couple primary sources currently available that show the presents of of suspenders and girdles for men, so we cannot determine the frequency of use.


I couldn't fined a good image of 17c leather breeches; 18th Century leather breeches, Link. 

Common Examples of leather breeches from New Netherland and New York:

1662 - Wiltwijck, Ulster Co., Wages earned by a young apprentice
four schepels of wheat and a pair of leather breeches

1664 - Brooklyn, New Netherland/New York, Upon a 14 year old's mother's death, the boy owned
a pair of leather breeches

1665 - Albany, New York, From the Church Deacons to Frans Coninck’s children

2 packages [one complete set or suit] of leather clothes, on which were used 7 deer skins

You probably noted a trend above. Children from about seven (7) years old through the teen years were likely to have leather breeches. Leather, along with Serge, were some of the most common textiles used for active kids.

New Netherland and New York's various records also show the use of leather breeches by adults. While breeches for women turn up more often in this colony than others, I have yet to find them in leather. But then again, leather breeches do not turn up in men's inventories at a high frequency either, but they are not unusual either. It is probable that this garment wore out quickly as it is a work horse for those in carpentry, masonry, etc. Also, while I have many farmer's inventories; I have but a few carpenter's, mason's, etc inventories.

On the 23rd of January 1642
Gregorio Pieterse, plaintiff, vs. Tomas Coninck, defendant.
Plaintiff demands payment for an elk skin which cost him 8 gl [gilders].
Defendant answers that he warned the plaintiff that breeches were made of the elk skin. He is ordered to prove the same.

and

1666 - WIC Employee and Trader with the Native Americans, Fort Orange inventory:
[adult] a leather and a cloth breeches f 36.10.00 [no leather coats or jackets were included]


Primary and Secondary Sources for the leather breeches of New Sweden and later New Amstel:

I have seen a few references to the people of New Sweden (1638 to 1655, afterwards called New Amstel) wearing buckskin or elk breeches, but they are 19th or 20th Century sources. Also, the documents available currently are not turning up probate inventories to New Sweden outside of a few inventories where a Dutchmen is planning a trip. This said, items being sent to New Amstel are; 

1661

7 ells red duffle

1 anker anise & 20 ells red duffle

30 ells linen

10 ells linen

10 ells linen 

1 pair of stockings

1 pair of stockings & 2 pairs of shoes

1 pair of shoes

There tends to be a distinct lack of clothing outside of stockings and shoes being sent to the New Amstel area from New Netherland. The above is a sampling for the year 1661, the records included additional anise, linen, red duffle plus items like Spanish wine as the year continues. Its possible they had a person sewing skins for jackets and breeches for the population. Many of the people located here were farmers. Further research is needed to uncover primary sources for this specific area.

One early 20th Century document gave the following referencing buckskin jackets and elk-skin breeches:

"Their dress wa chiefly of coarse woolen cloth, their shirts of linen, their stockings of felt, wool or linen, according to the season and the purse of the wearer... Leather, either tanned or cured in Indian fashion, was easier to procure and more durable to wear than woolen cloth, so coats made of leather, buckskin or otter skins, and elk-skin breeches were later commonly worn." - The Dutch and the Swedes on the Delaware 1609-64

These 19th and 20th sources may be referencing a 1749 interview of the "Oldest Swede on the Delaware, Nils Gustafson of Raccoon Creek". The interview occurred on the 16th of March 1749 old style. A man by the name of Peter Kalm did the interview of the 91 year old Gustafson who was born in America in 1658 to Swedish parents and is found in the book "Peter Kalm's Travels in North America".

"Before the English came to settle here, the Swedes could not get as many clothes as they needed, and were therefore obliged to get along as well as they could. The men wore waistcoats and breeches of skins.... The women were dressed in jackets and petticoats of skins."

From what I understand there are inventories from he late 17th Century from people who were Swedish and Nordic settlers. So, we will return to this topic and clothing in general for this region once enough inventories are secured.


The leather breeches of New England: 

The one off leather breeches in New Netherland and later New York are in contrast to the leather breeches in New England for the narrow time period of 1641 to 1661.  Below are most of the accounts of leather garments from Essex Co., New England that mentioned leather breeches, jacket or suit. For New England reenactors suits of leather are a great option and possibly reflect the less urban and high number of farms and villages:

1641, Ipswich Town Records
1 pair of stirrup hose

1641, Ipswich Town Records
1 leather "dublet", 8s. 6d.
1 pr. leather stockings, 2s.

(Below are three different 1647 inventories)

1647, Essex Co., MA
a leather Suite, 1Li. 6s. 8d.
a leather Jacket, 4s.

1647, Essex Co., MA
one leather "sute" 1li.10s.
one leather jacket, 1li.,

1647, Essex Co. MA
one leather suit, 1li.6s.8d.
one leather "dublett", 14s.

1655, Essex Co. MA
one "sute" of leather, 18s.

1661, Salem
a leather Jacket, 4s.


Suspender and Girdle:

When looking to see how these leather breeches were held to the body, it is likely they were simply buttoned. However, both New Netherland in 1665 and New England in 1648 each have another way; leather suspenders and leather girdle respectively. These items turn up rarely, likely due to their repeated use which would cause a high level of wear and tear. But these inventories at least allow us to see they both existed.

In the New England none of the inventories use the term "belt" unless paired with a sword or similar weapon. "Girdle" is found in four inventories; 1 leather, 1 embroidered, and 2 silk. In New Netherland and later 17th Century New York girdle is used for 3 different silver girdles for women.


1665 - Surgeon, Wiltwijck, Ulster County,  NewYork
a leather suspender

1648, Essex Co. MA
four Cushings & a leather girdle


The "one leather suspender" is likely, not that there were originally a pair of two separate straps, but likely the Dutch-German style of lederhosen suspender which is sewn into one piece. See the below etching called "Brandspuitenboek" printed in 1690 by Jan van der Heiden.

Below, Are those green fabric suspenders??? "Portrait of a Host by Peter Jakob Horemans 1765"

The use of leather breeches in British New York continue through the 18th Century. Below are a few examples.

1702 Merchant living in both New York City and Southhampton, New York
To 3 old “Lather” “Briches” 12
To 2 old “payre” of leather “Briches” & 2 old “wastcoats” 000:18:00

1774 Duchess Co., New York
Two Pair of Leather Breeches 1:0:0,

For the reenactor this is a great addition to a kit. Considering the high number of German, Dutch, Scandie and others; maybe we will be seeing some Leder Hosen with suspender style outfits at the 17th Century reenactments !