Leather Breeches, Suspender and Girdle

Leather breeches can be found in continental Europe and in England. So, it is not surprising to see them in New Netherland and later British New York. They are also readily found in New England and possibly New Sweden. This is great for reenactors who are looking for something different for their kits. Though, less so for vegetarians like me but the reality was that at the time, leather breeches were available and used. (I especially like the one's linked to below.)

From early in the 17th Century both New Netherland and New England had leather breeches in their inventories. However, from the sample in the database, they do not turn up in the same manor. In New Netherland, leather breeches are often listed as if an alternative to the cloth/textile choice, or simply on their own. This rule of thumb is flipped when it comes to New Sweden (Delaware) and also New England, where leather breeches are found often - but not always - in suit form. There are a couple references stating that in New Netherland and New Sweden breeches are made from elkskin as compared to buck or otter skin jackets.

Also, how one secures one's breeches to their body, may be somewhat different between New Netherland as a whole and New England. However, for this last point there is only a couple primary sources currently available that show the presents of of suspenders and girdles for men, so we cannot determine the frequency of use.


I couldn't fined a good image of 17c leather breeches; 18th Century leather breeches, Link. 

Common Examples of leather breeches from New Netherland and New York:

1662 - Wiltwijck, Ulster Co., Wages earned by a young apprentice
four schepels of wheat and a pair of leather breeches

1664 - Brooklyn, New Netherland/New York, Upon a 14 year old's mother's death, the boy owned
a pair of leather breeches

1665 - Albany, New York, From the Church Deacons to Frans Coninck’s children

2 packages [one complete set or suit] of leather clothes, on which were used 7 deer skins

You probably noted a trend above. Children from about seven (7) years old through the teen years were likely to have leather breeches. Leather, along with Serge, were some of the most common textiles used for active kids.

New Netherland and New York's various records also show the use of leather breeches by adults. While breeches for women turn up more often in this colony than others, I have yet to find them in leather. But then again, leather breeches do not turn up in men's inventories at a high frequency either, but they are not unusual either. It is probable that this garment wore out quickly as it is a work horse for those in carpentry, masonry, etc. Also, while I have many farmer's inventories; I have but a few carpenter's, mason's, etc inventories.

On the 23rd of January 1642
Gregorio Pieterse, plaintiff, vs. Tomas Coninck, defendant.
Plaintiff demands payment for an elk skin which cost him 8 gl [gilders].
Defendant answers that he warned the plaintiff that breeches were made of the elk skin. He is ordered to prove the same.

and

1666 - WIC Employee and Trader with the Native Americans, Fort Orange inventory:
[adult] a leather and a cloth breeches f 36.10.00 [no leather coats or jackets were included]


Primary and Secondary Sources for the leather breeches of New Sweden and later New Amstel:

I have seen a few references to the people of New Sweden (1638 to 1655, afterwards called New Amstel) wearing buckskin or elk breeches, but they are 19th or 20th Century sources. Also, the documents available currently are not turning up probate inventories to New Sweden outside of a few inventories where a Dutchmen is planning a trip. This said, items being sent to New Amstel are; 

1661

7 ells red duffle

1 anker anise & 20 ells red duffle

30 ells linen

10 ells linen

10 ells linen 

1 pair of stockings

1 pair of stockings & 2 pairs of shoes

1 pair of shoes

There tends to be a distinct lack of clothing outside of stockings and shoes being sent to the New Amstel area from New Netherland. The above is a sampling for the year 1661, the records included additional anise, linen, red duffle plus items like Spanish wine as the year continues. Its possible they had a person sewing skins for jackets and breeches for the population. Many of the people located here were farmers. Further research is needed to uncover primary sources for this specific area.

One early 20th Century document gave the following referencing buckskin jackets and elk-skin breeches:

"Their dress wa chiefly of coarse woolen cloth, their shirts of linen, their stockings of felt, wool or linen, according to the season and the purse of the wearer... Leather, either tanned or cured in Indian fashion, was easier to procure and more durable to wear than woolen cloth, so coats made of leather, buckskin or otter skins, and elk-skin breeches were later commonly worn." - The Dutch and the Swedes on the Delaware 1609-64

These 19th and 20th sources may be referencing a 1749 interview of the "Oldest Swede on the Delaware, Nils Gustafson of Raccoon Creek". The interview occurred on the 16th of March 1749 old style. A man by the name of Peter Kalm did the interview of the 91 year old Gustafson who was born in America in 1658 to Swedish parents and is found in the book "Peter Kalm's Travels in North America".

"Before the English came to settle here, the Swedes could not get as many clothes as they needed, and were therefore obliged to get along as well as they could. The men wore waistcoats and breeches of skins.... The women were dressed in jackets and petticoats of skins."

From what I understand there are inventories from he late 17th Century from people who were Swedish and Nordic settlers. So, we will return to this topic and clothing in general for this region once enough inventories are secured.


The leather breeches of New England: 

The one off leather breeches in New Netherland and later New York are in contrast to the leather breeches in New England for the narrow time period of 1641 to 1661.  Below are most of the accounts of leather garments from Essex Co., New England that mentioned leather breeches, jacket or suit. For New England reenactors suits of leather are a great option and possibly reflect the less urban and high number of farms and villages:

1641, Ipswich Town Records
1 pair of stirrup hose

1641, Ipswich Town Records
1 leather "dublet", 8s. 6d.
1 pr. leather stockings, 2s.

(Below are three different 1647 inventories)

1647, Essex Co., MA
a leather Suite, 1Li. 6s. 8d.
a leather Jacket, 4s.

1647, Essex Co., MA
one leather "sute" 1li.10s.
one leather jacket, 1li.,

1647, Essex Co. MA
one leather suit, 1li.6s.8d.
one leather "dublett", 14s.

1655, Essex Co. MA
one "sute" of leather, 18s.

1661, Salem
a leather Jacket, 4s.


Suspender and Girdle:

When looking to see how these leather breeches were held to the body, it is likely they were simply buttoned. However, both New Netherland in 1665 and New England in 1648 each have another way; leather suspenders and leather girdle respectively. These items turn up rarely, likely due to their repeated use which would cause a high level of wear and tear. But these inventories at least allow us to see they both existed.

In the New England none of the inventories use the term "belt" unless paired with a sword or similar weapon. "Girdle" is found in four inventories; 1 leather, 1 embroidered, and 2 silk. In New Netherland and later 17th Century New York girdle is used for 3 different silver girdles for women.


1665 - Surgeon, Wiltwijck, Ulster County,  NewYork
a leather suspender

1648, Essex Co. MA
four Cushings & a leather girdle


The "one leather suspender" is likely, not that there were originally a pair of two separate straps, but likely the Dutch-German style of lederhosen suspender which is sewn into one piece. See the below etching called "Brandspuitenboek" printed in 1690 by Jan van der Heiden.

Below, Are those green fabric suspenders??? "Portrait of a Host by Peter Jakob Horemans 1765"

The use of leather breeches in British New York continue through the 18th Century. Below are a few examples.

1702 Merchant living in both New York City and Southhampton, New York
To 3 old “Lather” “Briches” 12
To 2 old “payre” of leather “Briches” & 2 old “wastcoats” 000:18:00

1774 Duchess Co., New York
Two Pair of Leather Breeches 1:0:0,

For the reenactor this is a great addition to a kit. Considering the high number of German, Dutch, Scandie and others; maybe we will be seeing some Leder Hosen with suspender style outfits at the 17th Century reenactments ! 

Thank You

When I started this blog it was with the intent to get information out to teachers and educators. I also understood how time was usually limited for students, so providing an aggregated access point to primary sourced materials could help them with their research reports.

 A month ago, my goal was to reach 3 people.

So, I want to thank my followers from the US to the Netherlands and Belgium, from Brazil to Sweden and of course our neighbors in Canada and Mexico. The blog hit a 100 followers in 2 weeks and 201 followers in 4 and a half weeks as of today.

Tell a student this is a great time in history, 

Thank you ! 

Thanksgiving

We slept here in this house, and ate large quantities of pumpkin, beans, and venison so that we suffered of no hunger here but fared as well as it is possible in their country. I hope that everything shall succeed.

For Thanksgiving I am sharing excerpts from a 1634 account of an early trader's travel to various Mohawk castles. Castles are walled fort villages. The homes within the walled fort can be 80 to 100 steps long and 1 to 2 stories tall; with a barrier wall made from tree trunks that were sunk into the ground like a fence... a very thick and tall fence. If you look at the rectangular wall below in the image you'll see bump outs along the sides, which are similar to the bump outs on European made fort walls. They are there so a person from the village can look down from the top of the wall and can easily see the base of the wall; which without the bump out would be a blind spot for attackers to conceal themselves. These are very clever modes of defense. When the traders arrived at a castle they were often welcomed into the Mohawk's homes and fed. Foods included corn, but also beans, squash, venison and turkey. Many varieties of beans and squashes bought in modern grocery stores and served for diner today were originally developed by the Indigenous people of America. 

Image below from the 1662 map of New Netherland. 

“A Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 1634-1635”, by van den Bogaert

12th of December, “After we had traveled an hour, we came to the tributary that flows into our river [Hudson] and past the Marquise’s villages [near Cities of Schenectady and Scotia]. Here there was heavy ice flow… After crossing over, we went another one and half miles and came to a hunter’s cabin. We entered and ate some venison there. We then continued our journey. After we had gone another half mile, we saw some people coming towards us. then they saw us, they ran away. Throwing down their bags and packs, they ran into a marsh and hid behind a thicket so that we were unable to see them. We looked at their goods and packs, taking a small loaf of bread baked with beans. [modern Iroquois corn bread is made with cooked beans.] We at it up and continued…by estimated,…eleven miles. ”

12th of December, We came to the first castle called ONEKAHONCKA, which stood on a high hill. There were only 36 houses, row on row in a manner of streets, so that we easily pass through… Some are 100, 90, or 80 steps long; 22 or 23 feet high. There were also some interior doors made of split planks furnished with iron hinges. In some houses we also saw ironwork: iron chains, bolts, harrow teeth, iron hoops, spiked,…Most of the people were out hunting for bear and deer. These houses were full of grain that they call ONESTI and we corn. inded, some held 300 or 400 skipples [2/3 of a bushel]. They make boats and barrels of tree-bark and sew with it. We ate here many baked and boiled pumpkins which they called ANONSIRA. Non of the chiefs was at home, except for the most principal one called ADRIOCHTEN, who was lying one quarter mile from the fort in a small cabin because many Indians here in the castle had died of smallpox. I invited him to come visit with me, which he did. He came and bid me welcome, and said that he wanted us to come with him very much. We would have gone but we were called by another chief when we were already on the path, and turned back towards the castle. He had a large fire started at once, and a fat haunch of venison cooked, from which we ate; he also gave us two bear-skins to sleep on, and presented me with beaver pelts…. We slept here in this house, and ate large quantities of pumpkin, beans, and venison so that we suffered of no hunger here but fared as well as it is possible in their country. I hope that everything shall succeed.

14th of December,  Jeronimus wrote a letter to the commissary, Marten Gerritsen, asking for paper, salt, and ATSOCHWAT [ tobacco ]. We went out with the chief to see if we could shoot some turkeys, but got none. However, in the evening I bought a very fat turkey for 2 hands of “sea-wan” [trade beans], which the chief cooked for us; and the grease that cooked from it he put in our beans and corn…Two Wilde left from here for Fort Orange with skins.

16th of December, In the afternoon a good hunter named SICKARIS came here who wanted us to go with him very much and carry our goods to his castle [ the second castle ] . He offered to let us sleep in his house and stay there as long as we pleased. Because he offered us so much, I presented him with a knife and two awls [ small pointed tool for piercing holes, used in leather or wood working]; and to the chief in whose home we had stayed [ in the fist castle ] I presented a knife and a scissors.

16th of December, After we had gone one half mile over the ice we saw a village with only six houses. It was called CANOWARODE, but we did not enter…after we gone another half mile we passed a village with twelve houses called SCHATSYEROSY…a mile or mile and a half great past great tracts of flatland, we entered a castle…called CANAGERE… on a hill without palisade or any defense….

4th of January, castle called TENOTOGE. It had 55 houses, some 100 steps in size and other more or less as large. The waterway that was mentioned earlier ran past here and took the course mostly north-west and south-east. There are more houses on the opposite bank of the waterway; however, we did not enter them because the were mostly full of grain. The houses in this castle are full of grain and beans. Here the Indians looked on in amazement; for most everyone was at home, and they crowded in on us so much that we could barely pass among them. After a long period, an Wilde came to us who took us to his house and we went in it. The castle was surrounded with three rows of palisades. [the village was surrounded by three walls each made of tree-trunk spikes forming a 9 foot tall wall]. However, now there were only 6 or 7 sections left, so thick was the wall that it was unbelievable that Wilde could do it. …. Today we feasted on two bears, and we received today one half skittle of beans and some dried strawberries. Also, we provided ourselves here with bread that we could take along on the journey. Some of it had nuts, chestnuts, dried blueberries and sunflower seeds baked in it.

5th of January, [next village] I bought four dried salmon and two pieces of bear’s meat that was nine inches thick; there was some here even thicker. Today we ate beans cooked with bear’s meat. Otherwise nothing occurred. Jan. 7th. We received a letter…our people were very troubled because we did not return, thinking we had been killed. We ate here fresh salmon that had been caught but two days ago.

Attachable Sleeves - 1640 - 1722

In 1667, New York City, Madam Cornelia de Vos was seen wearing...


                                             “…, a pair of red and yellow sleeves,…”

Ms. de Vos's "red and yellow sleeves" turn up both in an "as seen" court record but also in her probate inventory. Both "waistcoats" and "mantels" with attachable sleeves were commonly used by farmers, traders, crafts people and even merchants of different status levels for the entirety of the 17th Century and into the 18th Century. Of the probate inventories in my database; there are 36 pairs of sleeves, with one particular 1640 inventory demonstrating the practical nature of New Netherland wardrobes with a number of doubles, waistcoats and mantels with attachable sleeves; whereas the 1641 and 1646 inventories sampled below also include furred jackets, robes and other garments reflective of farmers a bit more well off. Nevertheless, farmers, trades and crafts people regardless of wealth were wearing waistcoats with attachable sleeves.


1640, Female, Fort Amsterdam, (Manhattan) Tobacco Farmers (5 or more pairs of sleeves)

2 pairs of sleeves; 1 pair of woolen yarn, 1 pair of damask,
4 little mantles, one of them with fur,
2 pairs of white sleeves,
(?) pairs of yellow sleeves

Sleeves come in a variety of colors with some being patterned. They show up in mostly women's but also in men's and children's list of clothes. Some fashion historians tend to define a "waistcoat" as always having attached sleeves, and this tends to be true for some nations or regions. But primary sources show that the opposite can be true for other nations and regions. This is a great example of why research in one town, city or region can not be wholly (100% or always) applied to another town, city or region. They can over lap and we will see this in a later post when we look at New England and New Netherland as there are items that clearly overlap, some are adopted across ethnic lines and others only have "comparables". Below cropping of painting by Gabriel Metsu - Das Bohnenfest. Link.

1641, Female, Pavonia, (New Jersey) She is a sheep farmer and married to a Dutch WIC employee, (2 pairs)


1 undershirt of woolen yarn,
1 pair of damask sleeves, half worn,
1 little black vest with two sleeves


1646, Female, Albany, Crops and Dairy Farmer, (2 pair)

1 little black silk mantle with a pair of sleeves,
1 pair of old sleeves



During the first half of the century, the attached sleeves are associated with Jackets and Mantels, but later it is not obvious. It may be because waistcoats and bodices also had sleeves. Cropping of painting by Gerard ter Borch (Dutch, 1617–1681), about 1650/51. Link. 

The wearing of jackets with attachable sleeves continues into the 1690s and through to the 1720s. They can be very colorful and came in a variety of fabrics:


1702, Male, Merchant, NYC - To one old “Coats”, waistcoats without “sleaves” 000:7:6

1722, Female, Shop Keeper, NYC - 7 prs woman's sleeves 5.3


Of the 36 pairs of sleeves in New Netherland and later New York; 6 inventories had only one pair, 3 inventories had two pairs and two inventories had 3 pairs; the remainder had 5 or more pairs of sleeves. There was no correlation between having 1, 2 or 3 pairs based on decade or time frame. The inventories range from Manhattan to Kingston (Wiltwijk) to Albany, and span 1640 to 1722. 

Did you say PEARLS !

When the first women arrive in New Netherland in 1624, they brought quality textiles and other goods with them, but pearls don't seem to one of them. I know, I know... they had other things on their mind. However, within two decades pearls were showing up in early documents and never stop arriving.

Pearls do not appear in inventories, but there is a likely reason for this, as they are the perfect gift for mothers to bestow on daughters when they marry. Marriage gifts were an easy way around coverture laws and any estate taxes. (We'll get into this more later.) The first sign of pearls occurs in 1644, "Laurens Cornelissen persists in his statement that he received a box of pearls from the honorable director, but can not prove the same here,... in case of refusal, he shall be banished from this country until he prove at Amsterdam that he brought over pearls for the honorable director." In 1648, power of attorney and a purchase order was made by Frederick Lubbersen and given to Claes Jansen for pick up in Amsterdam which included two pearls for 20 florin (20 guilders).

Another 1648 account that mentioned pearls is as follows,
"Hendrick van Dyck, fiscal, ex officio plaintiff against the crew of the yacht De Cat, for the recovery of some pieces of eight and a few pearls which they secured in capturing the bark Nostra Senora Bosarlo and divided among themselves. The fiscal, instituting his action in writing, demands restitution of the aforesaid pieces of eight and pearls, maintaining that they are not plunder."- Link to New Netherland Institute

However, it was the next decade that a wave of pearls arrived in the colony. Large merchants and smaller "Pearl Peddlers" (as the Curacao record keeper called them) were looking for ready markets. An account left by Mr. Josua and Mordakay En' riques in January of 1656 which includes "100 pairs of pearl earrings", and "17 Bundles of pearls from "Venesia" of 10 strands each bundle" being stored in Curacao. We don't know where all the pearls ended up, but we know some made it to New Netherland.

The first shipment is loaded and sent in 1656 and a second in 1659 with a total of "7 pairs of Venetian pendants" and "28 bunches of Venetian pearls [ 10 strands each bunch ]". Captain Beaulieu leaves Curacao in the Caribbean and sails to New Netherland with a stop off in Virginia on the way. Unfortunately, we don't know how many of the bunches of pearls were sold in Virginia prior to arriving in New Netherland, but it is likely that all the pairs of pendents made it to the colony - as Venetian pendants require pierced ears. In addition to the pearl pendents, we have to remember that after the English seize control of Manhattan and Beverwijk (Albany) in 1664, trade went underground. The ships were suppose to leave Europe and head north to England to pay taxes before going to New York; they sometimes instead went south, sailed across the Atlantic to Curacao or other Dutch or French Islands. Then they sailed back north along the American coats. Plus, there was the trade coming down from French Canada into northern New York area around Albany.


Invoice January 1656 left by Mordakay En' riques
100 pairs of pearl earrings,
17 Bundles of pearls from Venesia of 10 strands each bundle


The below is a cropping of the original document which is found on the "New Netherland Institutes" website. Please check out their site it is a wealth of early 17th Century information including info from archeological digs. I am very grateful for the work and cost it took to bring these documents for FREE to the public ! New Netherland Institute Website link







Between January and May, eleven more bunches of pearls are added onto the Captain's account than were in the Mordakay En' riques invoice. So, we can see that the Captain - who is referred to as a "Pearl Peddler" - had more than one source of pearl suppliers


Received on Ship October 1656 - Arrives New Netherland May 1657
7 pairs of Venetian pendants, 5 pair at 3 gl. a piece, f. 15,00,00
28 bunches of Venetian pearls [10 strain per bunch], 2 bunches at 15 gl. [guilders] a bunch


Are you thinking what I am thinking? With this volume of pearls coming into the colony a fair number of women had the opportunity to purchase them with beaver pelts, sea-wan or other goods, as cash was not necessary.

Assuming the "pearl peddler" restricted purchase to one strand of pearls per customer, what percentage of the population may of purchased a strand? Notes: Total population of New Netherland was between 2,000 to 3,000 or about 1,000 to 1,750 females of various ages in 1655.

While pearls were the ornament (and investment) for both middle and merchant class, red corral and other semi-precious gems were the go to necklace for the working and also middle class. But in New Netherland and later New York, pearls could be purchased with more than just cash, as beavers, sea-wan and other goods could also purchase pearls. However, it is actually rather difficult to find women wearing their ear pendents and pearl necklaces in non-portrait depictions. While at home or at market most paintings show a woman with a scarf and ears covered.

Though...It seems that if you believe your man is about to announce his love... you are suppose to throw on a string a pearls, pull out something to read and ignore him. Below Painting, Cropping of "Man announcing is love."





Of course pearls are for weddings, here the woman sits looking at the new couple entering the tavern. You can see her pearl drop earrings on the woman nursing a baby. Cropping of a painting by the artist Jean Steen (1626 1679) "La fiancée trust , Vienne. Kunsthistorisches Museum Jan Steen.





Or if you need to write a letter, first throw on a pair of pearl pendents and brooch, then get to work. Cropping of Vermeer's, Woman writing a letter.






One last item found in primary sources are the correspondences to Anna Van Rensselaer, from family back in Holland. A number of items had been sent over by various family members with the intention of having Van Rensselaer "trade" them for beaver or merchandise that then could be sent back to Holland. One of the items to arrive between 1651 and 1656 were "crescents with pearls" from sister-in-law Hillegonda. We don't know how many were sent, but the phrase is plural. The crescents with pearls were having a difficult time being sold near Beverwijk (Albany and Hudson Valley region of NY) due to their high cost, and due to the drop in value of beavers in Holland. Later, a letter explains that the merchandise would be sold at a discount in order to move the goods. According to notes by the translator about the correspondences, on the same page, it is thought that these "halve mane met parle" are part of a headdress common or related to ones in Friesland. Whether these "half moons with pearls" were headdress pendents or another type of pendants is unknown, but they did exist.

Indigenous Leggings for Men, Women and Children

From early in the 17th century, Europeans began adopting and appropriating indigenous clothing in the middle colonies. There is also evidence of indigenous clothing in New England, Delaware, and elsewhere. One of the most common items of the 17th century are indigenous bags, that are large enough to hold a number of strung trade beads called "sea-wan". (Some people use "wampum" but New York inventories use "sea-wan", "trade beads" or "Indian beads".) Coats, shoes, trade beads, and other items are also found for adult and children in both probate and shop inventories. During the second half of the century indigenous leggings become widely popular. There are possibly a few reasons for this including; protection while walking through brush or working but also for warmth. While it is difficult to determine whether certain garments were adopted or appropriated, we can look at where they are found in primary sources. There is a rather large number of indigenous clothing in inventories, too many for one post, here we will explore primary sources for the 133 pairs of leggings found in probate and store inventories due to their high frequency in the 17th Century. 

"They [the "Wilde"] make their stockings and shoes of deer skins or elk's hide, and some have shoes made of corn-husks, of which they also make sacks." - Narratives of New Netherland 

Leggings came in a variety of colors and designs before and after Europeans arrived. The earliest depictions of indigenous persons tend to be people from warmer climates and without leggings. However, later depictions of Northern Indigenous persons shows them with and without leggings. The Narratives of New Netherland was a 17th century publication written by Adrian van der Donk who's occupation stationed him in the Hudson and Mohawk region, so it may be used as a primary source guide. Prior to European settlement, leggings were made of durable leathers and this continued in the 17th century. As of now, further research is needed to determine when fabric leggings were developed. By the 18th century indigenous artist and clothing makers adopted or appropriated the use of woven fabrics into their work. Leggings tended to come in two primary heights/lengths; one that just came to the knee being gartered at the knee and ankle, and the second is shaped more like chaps and having a strap at the side that ties to a waist belt. Both appear in imagery of Native Americans in the northeastern and middle colonials. 

Below are chap style leggings in the mid-18th century: Karonghyontye (Captain David Hill) is a Mohawk from the region near Albany, NY and who is pictured in the rear of painting. Colonial Guy Johnson who is in front was in charge of relations with the indigenous populations, National Gallery of Art, Link. Interestingly, the colonial in front is wearing leggings over his breeches but also moccasins. Yet, Karonghyontye is wearing the leggings on bare legs, but has healed European-British shoes on. This style of legging had a side-strap that tied to a belt at the waist. Karonghyontye's leggings also have a red vertical stripe on the exterior of the garment. The leggings worn by Colonial Johnson are likely made of fabric rather than leather. 

A number of the persons that immigrate to New Netherland and later New York are from regions in Europe that have a history of wearing lower and upper stockings, or layering breeches over long hose without a foot. Women too in some regions also wore petticoats over long hose without a foot. It is possible that the adoption of indigenous leggings by the European population was made easier due to the predisposition to similar garments. Below is an inventory from Albany where many mohawk people lived. It is possible that they came in the chap style as shown in the painting above, but the style is not noted in the inventories. Note the 32 pairs of red indigenous stockings. These may of been dyed leather or imported fabric. Also, "stockings" is historically correct, even though there was not a foot in them. But today we call them leggings. 

Also, the Dutch use two terms for Native people one is "barbaar" or barbarian the other is "wilde". In court and other primary sources such as in inventories we tend to see "wilde", which literally means "wild, natural" in 17th century Dutch. The Dutch also use the term "babaar", but as in the 1640s Governor Kieft's writings suggest it is not the most common term and used most often when angry or scared. We don't really have a dirrect translation for wilde other than maybe "nature's people" or "natural people" and it doesn't translate to "Indian" in the same sense. For reenactors, this terminology should be use respective of the region. Because as is evident in the 1693 inventory below, the term "wilde" is still being used in Albany 20 years after English sovereignty was granted in 1674. Whereas, "Indian" or "Savage" is used in NYC and Long Island during English sovereignty. 


In 1693, the following items were for sale in a Lysbett van Eps's store in Albany, New York taken during the English era; 

29 pair wilde “coussen”                                   29 pair wilde stockings

24 pair “jougen” ditto “coussen”,                     24 pair youth ditto [wilde] stockings

9 'pair' 'Fijne' 'roode' vrouw do.                       9 pair fine red woman do [stockings]

32 pair wilde “coussen” “roode” & “t.”             32 pair wilde stockings red and 't.' 

The 85 (possibly 94) pairs of indigenous leggings in van Eps's inventory taken in Albany, NY are likely made by the indigenous women and traded for other goods in van Eps's shop. Early court records show Indigenous people purchasing "cakes" (cookies?) with van Eps present and other goods. Albany had four indigenous villages or "castles" close by. With healthy trade moving back and forth between New York and Canada. The European settlers had a strong relationship with the local Mohawk population despite many of the Europeans often feeling unsure on how to "read" their relationship; the Mohawks came to their rescue and they vis versa in the 1690s when Canada invaded New York.

In 1675, and 1697 two different small merchants in New York City had "three pr. of Indian trading stockings at 00:06:00" and "30 pair Indians "Stockins” 03:00:00, 5 pair “wirsted” “Stockins” 01:05:00" respectively for sale in their shops. A shop out in Flushing Long Island in a 1680 inventory shows the couple had "fourteen “paire” of Indian Stockings" for sale in their shop, and then in with the tools another “one 'paire' of Indian Stock & 'breeches'". This last listing also mentions in the inventory, an "Indian “Mann” by name Phillip". We get a glimpse at how these stockings were being used, as the 1680 inventory states that 14 pairs were for sale in the shop, whereas, one lone pair were with tools. Many of the 1680 inventory's indigenous items were possibly made by Mr. Philip, who was a person of Indigenous heritage.  

Below is an example of leggings that were tied with a garter at the knee rather than a strap from the legging to a belt. Link.

Here are extent 18th century gartered at the knee leggings from the St. Lawrence area which are made of leather. And check out the amazing blog who posted about these and other authentic art made by people of indigenous heritage, Historic Iroquois and Wabanaki Beadwork, Beautiful !

Additionally, many teenagers in New York entered apprenticeships at about 12-16 years old. This may be why there are a number of youth stockings as it would protect their lower legs while learning carpentry and other trades. Had the 1693 Albany leggings for young persons been for small children it would of read for babies or "kinder" children rather than youths. 


Example of Ottawa persons from just the other side of the boarder in Canada, Link.

Colonial Labeling of Native Americans

One of the terms that seems to be rather difficult to translate into English is "wilde". This is because in part the Dutch use the term wilde for things, plants, animals and Native Americans. For the English the term "wild" is used for things and animals; while the word savage if reserved for indigenous people. The Dutch use the term wilde for only Native Americans but not Indigenous Persons from other nations (See the translation problem?). The English use savage as a general term for Indigenous Persons. But for all the Game of Thrones fans out there, you'll notice a trend where the term wilde is use in a similar way as "wild-ling" or person of nature or outside of urban European-cultural norms but with their own social-organizational patterns and laws. This recognition of separate cultural, legal system and sovereignty seems to be what separates the terms "wilde" and "savage". I don't know why the 17th Century Dutch choose this term, but lets look at the primary sources.

From the time of the first permanent European settlement in 1618 in Albany, New York to the seizure of Manhattan by the English in 1664 and then final transfer of sovereign control to the British in 1674, legal records were kept in Dutch. After 1674, all legal documents were mandated to be kept in English; many documents such as inventories, wills, letters and others continue to be kept in Dutch, and sometimes German and French. While I am not a language scholar, we can use primary sources to determine the meaning of labels and how they were applied to different people and groups. Translation dictionaries can often give us clues in how and when labels are utilized. Terms such as wilde, indian/indean, Japon and Turk are all terms that appear in 17th century books, letters, legal records and inventories. 

Bear with me, we are going to cover a topic that can be political. I ask that we look at it so that we can understand what 17th century people specific to New Netherland and New York were trying to state, explain or record in early documents.  

The savage pea plants of America ! : 
The term "wilde" may seem like an easy translation but it is not accurate due to the Dutch not using the word wilde in the same way English use savage, though there is consistency with the French and German. For instance, the Dutch would say "wild beast" which in English one could say "wild beast" or "savage beats". But the Dutch also use "wilde" for "wilde apple blossoms" and "wilde pea plants of America". Whereas, in English we don't say, "savage apple blossoms" or the "savage pea plants of America". (What a crazy movie that would be.) The term "wilde" for the Dutch is not interpreted as savage; "wilde" is meant to be interpreted as simply existing outside of the urban and formal farming culture, or "natural, in nature, of nature". 


Terminology: In the 1708 Groot Fransch en Nederduits woordenboek it states the following: 
"Sauvage", adj. Feroce, qui n'est point apprivoisé. Wildt, wreedt, ongetemt. 
Bete Sauvage. Een wildt beest. [ wild Beast ]
Pommier sauvage. Een wildt appelboom. [ wild apple bloom ]
Humeur Sauvage. Een mufien aart, een wildt inborst. [ a wild mood ]

This particular label is needed for interpreting court records such as the following. Note that the terms "natural" or "wilde" female and "black" female are used rather than "savage/sauvage", "Indian", "barbarous" or a variation on the N-word. (Side Note: This is not to say the N-word does not turn up regularly, it does appear often in different forms; but it is important for it to have its own post with attached primary sources.)   


New Netherland Council Minutes 1638 - 1649, page 37: 
Ulrich lupoldt fiscael....vs. Nicolaes Coorn Sargant....Bylen die he ende de soldaten waren Gedaen om hout te hacken, aende "wilden" voor zijn particulier te verruilen ende bevers tegens Sijn gedaenen eet in mijn coy heeft gehadt. ... Van gelijken tot verscheiden maelen "wildinnen"  [wilde females] ende Swartinennen [Black females] geheele nachten by hem gedachte hebben geslapen, in mijn Bet, tor presentie van alle de Soldaten." Page 37 Link.

"Ulrich Iupoldt fiscal vs. Nicolas Coorn Sargant... who by reason of his office was in duty bound to set a good moral example to his soldiers, has notwithstanding has been guilty of bartering with the wilde for private gain, the axes which were given him and the soldiers to cut wood and contrary to his oath has hidden the beavers in his bunk. ... Likewise, the defendant has at divers times had wilde females and black [swart=black] females sleep entire nights with him in his bed, in the presence of all the soldiers." 

The below is a cropping of the 20th century original transcript (not original document from 1638) of the New Netherland Council Minutes 1638 - 1649, page 37 section 27. These documents are available for free on the New Netherland Institute's website. 

Whereas, An Universal Etymological English Dictionary of 1731 states the following as the whole definition of "savage". The words savage and wild are separated. English Dictionary Link. 

Savage, wild barbarous people who keep no fix'd habitation, have no religion, law or policy. 


Here we get continuity, both colonial English and the Dutch use Barbarous (Dutch: Barbaar) for persons that appear to be a threat (though not to refer to themselves). When the Dutch wished to use a word closer to the English meaning of "savage" they used "barbarous", a barbarous people and may be associated with a person who purchases or drinks alcohol. This term has appeared occasionally in documents. 

On October 1656 Willem Hoffmeyr from Brazil and living in Fort Orange, was being accused of selling beer to "wilde-indian" in the opening statement, with a more detailed account of "on the 22d, 23d, and 24th of July last past, with five half barrels of good and small beer mixed together, sailed up the  river and sold and peddled the beer among the "wilde-barbar". The acusasaions continue with a reduction in the severity of "wilde-indian" and "wilde-babar" to "wilde" and the plural "wilden". - Fort Orange Council Minutes page 253 for the translated and also the original document from 1656 below. See the yellow underlines. Note that wilde is being used as the noun and Indian or barbarian as a descriptor. There are other nouns that are used in the same way such as Laken (a fulled twill woolen) vs. Serge Laken (a twilled woolen that is not fulled). The New Netherland Dutch tend to quantify many things in documents, so modifying the word wilde to meet the prosecutor's needs is not surprising. 

The term Indian does not readily apply either, and is use rarely in Dutch and even German documents. This may be due to the Dutch being regularly exposed to products from and writings about the nation of India. Roughly 2/3rds of men and 1/3 of women in the Netherlands were literate. This too may of helped, as did the regular education of both boys and girls in lower schools. 

In the 1655 Dutch book, Korte historian, ends jouraels aenteyckeninge, van verscheyden voyages in de vier deepen des wereldts-roune... the term "Indianen" is used to refer to the people of India, and rarely to the people of North America. The author having traveled to both regions and used separate terms to describe the people respectively.  Likewise, we see this in inventories; Wilde (Native people), Indian/Indean (India), Japon (Japan) and Turks (Turkish). All these terms are use in inventories in America often in the same inventory to delineate different items and their respective place of origin and value. 



Wilde, a People Recognized as a Nation: 
One interesting practice was international treaties. The Dutch enter into treaties for trade and peace with various indigenous tribes. Not only did the Dutch recognize that the Native Americans were legally able to enter into and sign contracts, they were treated as a separate nation and could not be punished under Dutch laws. A Native American could bare witness in a court cases against a European on trial, but could not be prosecuted themselves. However, any incident performed by an Indigenous Person would be reported to the person's tribal leaders. One governor Keift even tried to tax Indigenous person, but this did not comply with general Dutch legal structures of separate nations under treaties. This recognition of separate people as citizens under their respective nations and subject to separate sets of laws also distinguishes the term "wilde" from savage. This acceptance tends to carry over to the English occupation from 1664 to their sovereign control in 1667, and until the second granting of sovereignty in 1674. As a whole, Both the Dutch and English seem to treat Native Americans as a people with culture and subject to respective legal systems during the 17th Century. More study is needed to determine when the turning point is but the purchasing of property from Native Americans continues though the whole of the 17th century, with Indigenous persons signing contracts and deeds at least until the year 1700. 


Continued Use: 
Inventories also shed light on another phenomena, the term wilde continues to be used along side "Indian" ten, twenty and thirty years after the British were granted sovereign control. Wilde disappears from court documents in 1674, but continues in inventories and letters into the 1690s. 

Most interesting, people of Indigenous heritage are often referred to by name in Dutch and later New York era documents. Tribe names also make appearances, and the original Native American names for certain garments, material goods and other items create by indigenous persons are adopted by BOTH the Europen and British population. For instance, the term for a bag made by "wilde" is called "notassie" which is not a Dutch word but is regularly used by Europen people when referring to bags made by local Native Americans. Inventories in the Dutch from 1650 and in English from 1680s both use the term "notassie" (Dutch version) / "notase" (English version).  I don't know which of the Indigenous languages this word comes from but the Mohawk and Lenape terms for bag are "kaiarowá" / "nikaiar" and "putalas" / "xesinutay" / "menutesa" respectively. It may be that the "me-nutesa" which is a handbag or purse is our "notase", as the two "notase" are described as fitting into a travel bag. It seems that the name of the handband or purse was a Lanepe word, adopted by the Dutch and then later by the English. 

As we move forward through inventories whether under the Dutch or the English it is important to understand the different terms so to be able to appreciate the material goods in primary sources. The terms "wilde, barbarian, Indian, and savage" should be understood as accurately as possible and with understanding of the landscape it was used. 

Was this helpful in understanding term "wilde" in 17th Century Dutch New Netherland and English New York ?