Music & Instruments For All Ages

"2 transverse flutes" - 1700

The Following is a list of references for music from New York to the frontier. While not an exhaustive list of instruments in New York the following can show us that the region was not shying from music and dance. Parties were not unusual for the average person nor were balls for the politicos.

But this first inventory is interesting because we can see that even on the frontier of Schohary we can't do without culture, music and a good old time ! 

Nov 25th, 1773, Peter V. Ziellie
Late of Schohary in the County of Albany sold at Venue: 

1 Violine to Dennis Eckeser? 0:12:0

The above violin was sold for less than a pound in cash, making it more affordable than a suit, or even a jacket. Music as far as affordability goes was accessible. It is likely more so finding a teacher that would have prevented anyone from playing.



The 18th Century: From Organs and Spinets, to German Flutes and Bassoons: 

Mid-Century was a popular time for the learning or playing of instruments. A number of advertisement were posted for violins, German flutes, fifes and other instruments. German flutes are particularly popular. During the 17th Century the largest population demographic was Dutch, then Germanic people. New York takes in German immigrants on a regular basis possibly due to their ease of integration (as compared to assimilation) into a colony with a preexisting Central European culture. Below are some examples of advertisements from 1749 to 1775. 

Daniel & Philip Pelton, Drums Made and sold by Phillip Pelton, upper end of Queen-street, and by Daniel Pelton, in Chappel street, now called Beekman street, equal to any that have been imported for sound or beauty. As said Persons have great variety on hand any gentlemen may be served at the shortest notice, and on the most reasonable terms. The purchaser may depend upon having their Drums tun'd to sound well.—The New-York Journal or the General Advertiser, October 5, 1775.

John Sheiuble....N.B. He has now ready for sale, one neat chamber organ, one hammer spinnet, one common spinnet.—The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury, October 10, 1774. F

Robert Horne, Musical Instrument-Maker, from London, on Golden-Hill, near Burling's Slip, Makes and repairs musical instruments, viz. Violins, tennors, violon-cellos, guittars, kitts, aeolus harps, spinnets, and spinnets jacks, violin bows, tail-pieces, pins, bridges; bows hair'd, and the best Roman Strings, &c. N.B. Country stores supply'd on the shortest notice.—The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury, January 6, 1772.

David Wolhaupter, Takes this method to inform his friends and customers, that he has removed from the place he formerly lived, to the house where Mr. Muller, leather breeches maker, formerly lived, nearly opposite the Flattenbarrack-Hill, in the Broadway; where he makes and mends all sorts of musical instruments, such as basoons, German flutes, Common do. hautboys, clarinets, fifes, bagpipes, &c. also makes and mends all sorts of mathematical instruments, and all sorts of tuning work done by said Wolhaupter. Any gentlemen that will please to favour him with their employ, may depend upon being served at the cheapest rate, by their humble servant.—The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury, June 18, 1770.

Simeon Coley.—Just imported in the ships Edward and Hope, from London, and to be sold cheap by Simeon Coley, Silver-smith, near the Merchant's Coffee house; A Large assortment of jewellery, diamond, garnet, and other rings; the neatest paste & stone buckels, garnet and paste necklaces, ear rings, egrets and solatiers, ditto neat etwe cases, silver-handle knives and forks in cases, ivory ditto, neat small swords, and cutteau de chase, and sword belts, great variety of pocket books for gentlemen and ladies, silver and other watches, ditto chains, neat clocks in mahogany cases, best gilt and other buckels, masons broaches and jewels, gold buttons and seals, silver ditto, neat tortise-shell snuff-boxes and smelling bottles, plated bits, and stirrups, best violins, german and common flutes, fifes, aeolus harps, hand organs, and a variety of other articles.—The New-York Mercury, October 5, 1767. 

Charles Shipman, Ivory and Hardwood Turner, lately from England: Takes this Method to acquaint all ladies, gentlemen, &c. that having served a regular apprenticeship to a very considerable Turning Manufactory in Birmingham; he purposes carrying on that business here, in all the various undermentioned articles;... Cruet frames repair'd and German flutes tip'd in the neatest manner, oval picture frames, and sundry other articles too tedious to mention.—The New-York Journal or the General Advertiser, August 6, 1767.

Robert Horne, Musical Instrument-Maker, from London, at Mr. Francis Cooley's, on Golden-Hill; Makes and repairs Violins, bass viols, tenor viols, Æolius harps, gauiters, German flutes, Kitts, violin bows, &c. in the neatest and compleatest manner. All orders punctually obey'd, with the quickest dispatch;: The favour of Gentlemen and Ladies shall be duly honour'd with their Commands. N.B. Merchants may be supplied with any of the above, cheaper than in London on proper notice given.—The New-York Mercury, September 14, 1767. 

Jacob Trippell, Musical Instrument Maker from London, at the House of Mr. John Ent, Watchmaker, opposite to, on the West Side of the Old Slip Market, a few Doors below Duyckinck's Corner, makes and repairs all sorts of Violins, Base and Tenor Viols; English and Spanish Guitters, Loutens, Mentelines, Madores, and Welsh Harps, at reasonable Rates, as neat as in Europe, Having work'd at the Business Nine Years, with the best Hands in London, since I left Germany; I shall Endeavour to Give Satisfaction to those Ladies and Gentlemen, that shall favour me with their Custom.—The New-York Gazette, August 24, 1767.

Gottlieb Wolhaupter, living at the Sign of the Musical Instrument-Maker, opposite Mr. Adam Vanderberg's has just imported from London, a Choice Parcel of the best English Box-wood; Where he continues to make and mend, all Sorts of Musical Instruments, such as German Flutes, Hautboys [Oboes], Clareonets, Flageolets [  'fipple' flute] , Bassoons, Fifes, and also Silver Tea-Pot Handles.—The New-York Gazette, November 16, 1761. 

Mathematical Instrument Maker.—The late invented and most curious Instrument call'd an Octant, for taking the Latitude or other Altitudes at Sea, with all other Mathematical Instruments for Sea or Land, compleatly made by Anthony Lamb in New-York: where all Persons may be supply'd with German Flutes, and sundry other small Works in Wood, Ivory, or Brass, and Books of Navigation; and a proper Direction given with every Instrument. Ready Money for curious hard Wood, Ivory, Tortois-Shell, and old Brass.—The New-York Gazette Revived in the Weekly Post-Boy, January 23, 1749.

The 17th Century: Transverse Flutes, Recorders, Fiddles, Drums, Trumpets and Bells:

As mentioned in a previous post one can purchase up to "30 knots of fiddle strings" on Long Island in 1691.  Later, the New York  governor (1720-1728) William Burnet has a "large Violin or Tenor Fidle" in his inventory. Tenor violins or tenor fiddles, are what English called the viola. Flutes also make an appearance at the turn of the century. 

The following was written in the inventory for Jan Cock.

Est. 1699-1701 based on preceding and post wills and inventories. 

Inventory of the state left by Jan Cock, a young man who by the bursting of a cannon in their majesties fort at Albany was killed on the 9th of February 16th, when the French destroyed Schenectady, made by Albert 'Ryckman' and Jan Lansing, aldermen of the city of Albany.  

Inventory of Jan and Widow Katelyntie Cock
2 transverse flutes 

1664 - Beverwijk (Albany) 

Inventory of Jan Gerritsen van Macken a farmer and sometimes collector of liquor taxes 

20 children hats, both girls and boys hats
some "hansioos" jewelry
10 wooden recorders

It seems that New Yorkers enjoyed banging on things as part of their New Years celebrations. Stuyvasent was quick to make it illegal to shoot guns randomly into the air but also: 

"Therefore, in order to prevent such in the future the director general and council expressly forbid henceforth shooting and planting of May poles on New Year and May days within this province of New Netherland; also, any noise making with drums or dispensing of any wine, ....and this only to prevent further accidents and trouble, for a fine of 12 guilders for the first time, doubled for the second time and arbitrary punishment for the third time;...Dated the end of December 1655, and renewed the 30th of December 1658." - Laws and Write of Appeals, 1647 - 1663. 

Also in the Laws and Write of Appeals:

"The director general, Petrus Stuyvesant, as captain of his company, observing that the last issued order, dated 7 October 1655, concerning the appearance before the colors at the beat of the drum, and the posting of and remaining on guard, is not observed and obeyed by the superior and inferior officers as it ought to be, and as is customary in all garrisons; therefore, notifies and commands all officers and soldiers of his com many:..." 

In 1648, Both Pieter Leendersz and Albert Pieterson were "Trumpeters" living in New Netherland. Plus Hendrick Jansen Sluyter, was a drummer, in 1654. The New Netherland merchants Mordakey and Captain "Beauline" made sure even babies and toddlers got in on the fun. They acquired items from the Caribbean and then shipped them north. These are the same two merchants Mordakey and Captain "Beauline" who purchased and sold the Venetian pearls. While the harps are not meant for children, the bells are. Below is an excerpt. 

Account left by Mr. Josua and Mordakey Emriques, 1st January 1656 

4 gross of rattles are 48 dozen that cost me a 200 lb sack of sugar per gross. That comes to a 17 lb. sack of sugar per dozen. 

Cont. Summary         October 28th 1656,                           April 23rd 1659

In Curacao                Captain "Beauline" Receives:           Sold since receipt:              

               ---                        20 dozen and 11 Jews harps        12 dozen and 11 at 8 st[ivers] a dozen

800 Rattles                19 dozen copper bells                      19 dozen at 8 st. a dozen

Women, Cellos and Viola de Gambas

[They] are taught Music, and to play on all sorts of Instruments, in which some of' em are excellent Performers. Apologia actually passes for the finest Singer, and Anna-Maria's for the first Violin in Italy. The Concourse of People to this Church on Sundays and Holidays is extraordinary. - 

The Memoirs of Charles-Lewis, Baron de Pollnitz, Karl Ludwig, 1739

Did women play the cello or viola de gamba ?

The sound of the cello is enchanting, powerful and elegant; while the viola is rich, complicated and sophisticated. It is almost as if each one has its own attitude. Its not surprising that the women of Europe played cellos and de 'gambas'. For that matter, we can also see that they mastered the violin and viol / viola.

There is this general talk; that "women" did not do this or that, because it was not "becoming" or was "suggestive". If this were true, we would not have such a good sampling of European women playing these instruments. Anna-Maria of Venice who was considered the first violin of Italy will be one who was remembered. However, by the time Anna-Maria comes on the scene in the 1730s, Italy had had women playing instruments from both the violin and viola family since at least the 16th Century during their Renaissance. Italy's record for including women in orchestras, quartets, and the similar will be contagious to other nations as they enter their own renaissances. Anna-Maria of Venice will not be alone; others in the first half of the 18th Century who were trained violist including Madame Henriette (Louis XV's daughter) of France who played the large viola de gamba, and Madame la marquise de "Grancey" played the tenor viola, small, but still played upright on the knee. Later during the second half of the 18c, Ann Ford of England who played the 'viol de gamba' along with the 'Saltero', Spanish guitar, archlute, and the piano-forte, began private concerts in October 1758 and public concerts in March 1760. So, here we can see that it was acceptable for women in both Europe and England to play the viola de 'gamba'. Imagery and the quote below, help us see that some women also played the cello.


Image of Madame Henriette:

How is it that on one hand we have many primary sources pointing out women by name who played large instruments that sat between the knees plus the likes of violins and viola and on the other hand this idea that some think that a 16th, 17th & 18th Century person would find this "suggestive" ?

The answer to if women during colonial times played cellos and de gamba between the knees, or if at all, is based on one particular document that circulated among musicians. However, make note of the date. This quote both confirms that the author witness women playing cellos, and between the knees, though disapproved of it. Essentially, for female musicians who also do reenacting, both before and during the American Revolution the cello and viola de gamba are fair game.


From the book: The First Fleet Piano: Volume One: A Musician’s View:

"An anonymous writer in the Musikalischer Almanach fur 1784..., observing that when a woman plays a cello she must spread her legs, prudishly remarked: 'In thousands of people it calls up pictures that it ought not to call up.' [ However, ] If a woman played the cello, it was recommended that she play it 'in the side-saddle position, an attitude that persisted in certain educational institutions well into the twentieth century"


Its interesting that gender lines became more restrictive after the Rev. war. However, this is not unusual nor the only example of this happening. What is more important is that we see a shift in attitude where previously, all women sat with their legs apart to later in the 19c sitting with the knee together. So, playing a cello or de 'gamba' between the knees for a woman was not a big deal.


Image of 19th Century Queen Victoria of England:

If you would like a coffee / tea / chocolate break before delving into the nitty-gritty ... scroll down to the end for a tour of paintings of women with their cellos and violas. They are rather beautiful. 

So, if there was not an issue with women during the 16th, 17th and 18th Century playing the cello and viola de gamba, were there any limitations on which string instruments they could play ?  First, what is a Viola compared to a Violin ?

What are Violas ?

While cellos are well know, and part of the violin family; its counter part the viola de gamba is part of the viol / viols / viola family. The de gamba and all the viols have a flat back, the shoulders of the viol are sloped, and are easy to spot due to having a /C/ whole in the front. Whereas, violins have /S/ shaped wholes. The viol also has 5-7 stings and frets whereas the violin only has four strings.


All viols are played upright, like the cello, but unlike the violin. The Italian term for viol is viola de gamba which means... viol for the knee. As we saw with the adoption of the tabbaard gown from Venice to the Netherlands and onto America... we see another trend with the viola de gamba; bass and tenor. Where, early images show Italian musicians (female) playing the de gamba, and then the Dutch; we do not have images of women in America playing the viola.. but there isn't much with the men either.

What are a Violins ?

They are musical instruments developed in 16th century Italy; also called violas da 'braccio'. The violins have four strings and s-shapes wholes. Most people have seen violins, cellos and bass violins; so we'll let readers follow up on their history outside of this post.


Rich, complicated, and sophisticated:

Inventories of New York:

Violas may have arrived prior to the 18th century. In 1692, there are 30 bunches of "fiddle" strings for sale in a NY store; whether or not the recorder knew the difference between a violin string and ones for a viol is unknown. However, 30 bunches of strings is a good number, possibly a 2 or more year supply for the store keeper. With this in mind, we may safely guess that there were a dozen or more people who played instruments from the violin and viola families.

The New York governor (1720-1728) William Burnet has a "large Violin or Tenor Fidle" in his inventory. Tenor violins or tenor fiddles, are what English called the viola. If we use this as the reference for the 1692 inventory we see that the "30 bunches of fiddle strings" mentioned above, were likely viola strings.

As to whether women played the viola, we get a clue from the wind instruments being sold by another retailer. Recorders, it appears, were purchased for boys and girls at school age during the 17th Century in New York. So in this instance, we see that another instrument that is considered by some in hind sight as too suggestive for women (wind instruments) were being played by little girls.


Violins vs. Violas:

There may be some gender bias between the violin and viola. Though, we first have to note that there are women that play instruments from both families and men did the same. With this in mind, if there is a gender bias, it is likely coming not from a top down, but individual to individual. In other words, a teacher may choose to not teach girls.


Advertisements:

Here we can clearly see that the de gamba and other viols are in fact in New York. We can see violins, and... bass viols !! A viol, is a viola, and they are for sale in New York. In the images near the bottom of the page we see both the bass viol and tenor viol being played by women in Europe.


1759 - Imported Musical Instruments.—To be sold by a Gentleman who lodges at Widow Darcey's nigh the Ship-Yards, opposite to William Walton's, Esq; and who is to go soon out of Town; exceeding good German Flutes, for three Dollars each; likewise others with 2, 3, 4 or 5 middle pieces to change the Tones and Voice, do. likewise Base Viol Strings of all Sizes, and silvered Ones for Basses, Violins and Tenors. A great Collection of wrote and printed Musick from Italy and England. The newest Sets of Scotch and Irish Tunes, and Airs in Score, Base Viol and Fiddle Bridges, rulled Musick Paper in Sheets and in Books, German Flute Concertos, Sonatas, Duets and Solos, and a great many other Things in the musical Way, imported by himself from Naples and London. Likewise, two fine Violins, a Girls six-stringd Bass Viole, and a foreign Pocket Gun.—The New-York Mercury, August 13, 1759.

1767 - Robert Horne, Musical Instrument-Maker, from London, at Mr. Francis Cooley's, on Golden-Hill; Makes and repairs Violins, bass viols, tenor viols, Æolius harps, gauiters, German flutes, Kitts, violin bows, &c. in the neatest and compleatest manner. All orders punctually obey'd, with the quickest dispatch;: The favour of Gentlemen and Ladies shall be duly honour'd with their Commands. N.B. Merchants may be supplied with any of the above, cheaper than in London on proper notice given.—The New-York Mercury, September 14, 1767.

1772 - Robert Horne, Musical Instrument-Maker, from London, on Golden-Hill, near Burling's Slip, Makes and repairs musical instruments, viz. Violins, tennors, violon-cellos, guittars, kitts, aeolus harps, spinnets, and spinnets jacks, violin bows, tail-pieces, pins, bridges; bows hair'd, and the best Roman Strings, &c. N.B. Country stores supply'd on the shortest notice.—The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury, January 6, 1772.


Gendered vs. Gendered Neutral Advertisements:

It seem that some instructors will only teach violin to men; however, there is no mention of viola / viol in the below adds. The lack of mention for the viola in these adds, may be related to violas being popular among woman, while violins were also likely played by females, some male instructors may not of deemed four string instruments as a feminine pursuit. Though, other teachers target both men and women. We will note that while bass violins are in the violin family, bass fiddles are in the viola. When one sees a "double bass" it is a instrument that hovers between the two families. Though, it is possible, that just as some women may offer lessons to only females, some men would also only offer lessons to males. This last point is possibly the likely answer as instruction classes for only men or only women still exists today. Below we see violin and bass violin instruction offered to only men.

Examples of gender-neutral or inclusive:

1758 - Alexander Dienval.—This is to give Notice, That the Violin and German Flute, are taught in the Space of two or three Months each, by Alexander V. Dienval, at Mr. Elphinstone's House in the Slott.—The New-York Mercury, September 18, 1758.

1768 - Wall, Comedian, Engages to teach Ladies and Gentlemen to Play on the Guitar to prevent Trouble, his terms are to such as chuse to be waited on at the Houses; One Guinea Entrance, and the same per Month for which he pays Attendance, Three Times a Week. Ladies and Gentlemen, who may think proper to honour him with their Commands, by sending to his lodgings, at Mr. Sproul's, in Depyster's-Street, will be immediately waited on.—The New-York Mercury, January 11, 1768.


Males only:

1753 - Charles Love, Musician, from London, at his lodgings at the house of Mrs. George, in the first lane from the Bowling-Green, that leads to the North-River, proposes teaching gentlemen musick on the following instruments, Viz. Violin, Hautboy, German and Common Flutes, Bassoon, French Horn, Tenor, and Base Violin, if desired....The New York Mercury, July 2, 1753.

1759 - William Charles Hulet.—This is to Give Notice, That the Violin is taught in so plain and easy a Method (that young Gentlemen of eight or nine years old may be capable of learning in a short Time) by W. C. Hulet, at the House of Robert Wallace, joiner, in the Broad-street,...—The New-York Gazette, September 24, 1759.


The Fashionable Cello and Viola de Gamba:

Anyone notice a trend? What is fashionable in Venice doesn't stay in Venice. Whether it is Venitian pearls, the tabbaard gown and now the viola; all things fashionable seem to make it to New Newnetherland and New York.

First we see violas become popular in Italy (but were widely played in Spain too). Then the Dutch and likely Flemish people playing the same instruments during their Golden Age. Here is where gets a bit tricky; did the viola, which was popular in the Netherlands, come over in the 1650s with the tabbaard and all those venetian pearls??? 

Or adopted after the final transfer of sovereign power to the English in the 1670s? In either case, 'fiddles' and possibly violas were here in the 1690s. When the age of Enlightenment comes, the French are seen with these instruments in tandem with New York. The violas, don't seem to have lost their attractiveness in New York or America during the 18th century. 

This trend where out of one economic-cultural upswing into another (Renaissance to Golden Age to Enlightenment) a fashion or other material good is adopted, is not isolated to these three samples. We will see more threading together of these ages in future posts where a material good (and cultural norms) developed in Italy, is adopted in the Netherlands and then brought over to New Netherland or New York. Alternatively, there are a number of items that are developed in other nations, adopted by Golden Age Dutch, and transferred to America. While much of this is rooted in economics and commercialism in the colonial sense, it is also driven by a customer curious and open to new experiences.

I hope you enjoy the below image-tour through history ! Happy Holidays !

In Images: 

1) Italy, The outdoor Concert, artist unknown, painting in the Hotel Lallemand, Bourges, France 16c.

2) Netherlands, anoniem, Vrouw bespeelt een strijkinstrument about 1600-1610.

3) German, VIOLA da GAMBA, A consort of viols by Freyse, German, 1630s

4) Netherland, Jan Olis - Musical Evening, 1630s

5) English, Anthonis van Dyck - Portrait of Mary Ruthann 1638

5) Netherlands, Concert - Jacob van Loo (1652)

7) Gabriël Metsu, Netherlands: Interieur van een schildersatelier met een kunstenaar die een vrouw met een viola da gamba schildert. ca. 1655.

8) Metsu, Netherlands, 1658

9) Paolo Caliari, il Veronese

10) Metsu, Netherlands, dated to 1663

11) Gerard Pietersz. van Zijl, 1658 - 1677

12) Portrait of a Lady Playing a Viola da Gamba, 1675, by Caspar Netscher

13) Vrouw bespeelt een viola da gamba, Pieter Schenk (I), 1670 - 1713

14) Nicolas Bonnart (France, 1637-1717) Recueil des modes de la cour de France, 'Dame qui Jouë de la Viole en Chantant' France, Paris, circa 1682-1686 14) 

15) Madame la marquise de Grancey by Antoine Trouvain abt. 1700

16) 1750s - A lady playing the pardessus de viol, "Perronneau"

17) Madame Henriette (Louis XV's daughter) playing the Viola da Gamba in Court dress by Jean-Marc Nattier (1685- 1766)

For the above list of images, I left out four more of Dutch and Italian women from 1550-1650s which would bring the total to 21; but there is a trend. With all the images together, the women of Italy were actively playing string instruments in the 16th Century. Dutch ladies picked up the same instruments in the 17th Century, and it became all the rage in France at the start of the 18th Century.

With this amount of imagery, we can see playing large string instruments was acceptable, in Italy, the Netherlands and France. Also noted, is that saints, angels and nuns were portrayed as playing cellos and the viola de gamba. Lastly, even as recent as the 19th Century, we can see the enjoyment derived from a woman with a bow. Here are three bonus ones. Note, the well off lady in pink does not seem to be following the advice of playing side-saddle.

Thomas Sword Good (1789–1872), England

St Cecilia DOMENICHINO

Concert of Angels (detail) by Matthias Grünewald ca. 1470, Würzburg, Germany - ca. 1528, Halle, Germany

Wampum vs. "Seawan"

Many early 17th Century primary sources use the term Sea-wan to mean trade beads that are strung (like beads on a necklace) or in bundles (multiple strings). This term is used while under Dutch New Netherland and during 17th Century British New York.

The New Netherland era for this blog includes the time of the first permanent trading post in 1614 Wiltwijk on the Hudson, through to the time the English received sovereign control in 1667 and unto 1674. There is an argument that can be made for this era to include up to when the Dutch took back the territory for 15 months and finally ceding control again to the English in 1674. This timing will be explore in a follow up post; however, one of the main reasons for this is that prior to 1674, the English did not enforce British Common Law. This had a significant effect on the population after 1674 because it meant that many people's liberties enjoyed under Dutch Civil and Canon law were stripped in this one year. The lack of enforcement of English Common law up to this point, allowed the colony to continued to use Dutch civil law to solve legal and court cases which had an effect on personal incomes, property ownership, economics, and even how to address a person.

Sea-wan was used in documents from early in the region's settlement by Europeans; and is adopted from the local indigenous language. Later, when the British governors introduced the term wampum (from the Algonquin word wampumpeag meaning white shell beads) into legal documents, it was not easily adopted by the general public. Did the introduction of the term wampum into this colony by the governor displace the term sea-wan which was used by local Indigenous people and colonist?

It is noted that the primary records do not hyphenate sea-wan. However, when I type the term without a hyphen the spellcheck auto corrects it, even after I have saved the page. So, it is hyphenated to preserve understanding otherwise this post would read very differently. Sea-wan which is commonly used from Brooklyn to Albany; also appears as "Zee-wan" in early documents and "Se-want" particularly in the South River  (Delaware River) documents.


In the Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady court minutes for 1680-1685

Sample 1: Ordinary session held in New Albany, June 8, 1680, page 11 -12

Mr. Samual Winder, attorney for Capt. John Palmer, ... against Jan Ver Beek, defendant.

The plaintiff demands of the defendant the sum of 16 gl. [guilders] in beavers, showing by the journal and ledger of Mr John Winder, fol. 24, under date of October 5, 1665, that the defendant is indebted to that amount...

Idem, plaintiff, against Lambert van Valkenburg, defendant. The plaintiff demands of the defendant the sum of 28 gl. in sea-wan, showing by the books of Mr. Jan Winder, fol. 24,....

The hornoable court condemn the defendant to pay to the plaintiff or his order the sum of 28 gl. in sea-wan,...

Indem, plaintiff, against Jan Labatee, defendant.

The plaintiff demands of the defendant the sum of 21 gl. in sea-wan, showing by the books of Mr. John Winder, ....

(The terms Negro and Indian are copied from the primary sources and not my own.)


Sample 2: Extraordinary session held in Albany, July 24, 1682, page 274 - 277

Philip Schuyler complains to their honors [in court] in writing that on on the 20th of July last great harm was done to him... who in passing [by] left the gate open and called him names...  especially one called Naerenachteno, who threw a stone at his horse, wounding it above the eye, where upon his Negro, Jan, struck the said Indian.... [a fight followed].

The Indians answered:

1) That the mischief which occurred was not premeditated... They offer a belt, 7 [beads] high.

2) They are heartily sorry about the mischief... They offer a bundle of sea-wan.

3) They are very sorry that the Negro was wounded so badly... They offer two wampum belts, one 12 and the other 6 [ beads ] high.

4) They are ashamed of this mischief... They offer 1 belt of wampum.

5) It was very wrong of the Indian to abuse and scold Ph. Schuyler so... They offer 1 bundle of sea-wan.

Etc...

12 They have finished, but they give 2 belts for medicines or salves [ medicine bags ] to be put on the wound.

N.B It is found that the sea-wan offered by the Indians consists of 12 wampum belts, large and small; 4 bundles of sea-wan and 2 small strings woven belt wise, and 1 thing that is carried on the breast.


In Albany, NY we can see partial transition in terminology after the 1674 enforcement, though some time after.What is interesting about this transition is that the citizens and the courts continue to use sea-wan for individual strings of beads and for bundles of strung beads whereas; wampum is specifically used for trade beads made into a belt form. It is unknown if the local indigenous population decided to adopt the English governor's use of wampum. Despite this, the term sea-wan is used significantly more often than wampum in 1680-85. This implies that both the Indigenous People and colonist continued to use sea-wan in their day-to-day communications.

Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady records for British New York:

                             Sea-wan                   Wampum                 Wampum Belt

1668 - 1673:           261                             0                                 0
1675 - 1680:           462                             0                                 0
1680 - 1685:           438                             3                               13



Interestingly when Govoner Dogan writes to the magistrates of Albany, he uses the term wampum independently of "wampum belt", yet does not include the term sea-wan, strings of sea-wan or bundles of sea-wan in his address. He has yet to adopted to the terminology associated with the economy or currency. Here we can see a disconnect between the understood terminology used by the citizens and indigenous population and an imposed terminology introduced by the English governor. In 1684, the governor realizes that more than just trade beads are being used as money and includes "jewelry". However, the disconnect in terminology and language between the Governor and the colonist still remains.

Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady 1680-1685 , Page 475.

By the Governor [Dongan], 1684

Forasmuch as ye Present magistrates of ye Toune of Albanie, have made there Complaint, that it is a great Inconvenience and Damage both to ye trade of this Governt, and this town in Particular, that any wampum, wampum Pipes, Indian Jewells or money should be Transported out of this Government off N: York and Dependencies, it is therefore ordered, that no wampum, wampum Pipes, Indian Juwels or any sort off money, be Transported or carried out of this Government, and that no traders, merchants or any "oyr" Persones whatsoever shall in Exchange or Traffique, give sell or any other ways dispose of money, wampum or Indian Juwells to any Person who shall Carry them out of this Government. ...

However, records such as property purchases are still using sea-wan as a currency; sea-wan is cited as  still in use as currency in 1684. For the Early Records of Albany, Notarial Papers the term sea-wan is cited 99 times and zero times for wampum for the years 1660 to 1696.

Example from the Early Records of Albany, Notarial Papers 1 and 2, 1660 - 1696, page 576, is below.  

Contract of sale between Cornelis Michielsen and Jurriaen "Teunissen" [van] Tappen of the the farm called the "Klinckenbergh" 

On this 5th day of August 1684... Michietlsz acknowledges that he has sold to said Jurriaen Tunis all his interest in the land... pay to the seller or his order the sum of fifty whole, merchantable beaver skins in silver money, wheat, or sea-wan at beaver's price, in two payments... 

When we travel south to the South or Delaware River to the former New Amstel and New Sweden region, we see what appears to be confusion in terminology. Sea-wan is used in the same way as in Albany during the post 1674 enforcement of English Common law which requires all documents to be kept in English, but the citizens are interchanging belts of wampum and belts of sea-wan. It is noted that se-want is the preferred term for sea-wan in this region.

Delaware Papers The English Era

                         Sea-wan                       Wampum                    Wampum Belt

1664 to 1682:  18 (incl. belts/bands)    2  [1670]                      3   (1675 wampam & wamp.)


In the Delaware Papers during the English period, we see General Carr using the term wampum to include strung or bundles of sea-wan, but doesn't use the local definition of sea-wan. Note: In the same document we see non-government officials and recorders using the term se-want to represent sea-wan but not wampum in 1670.

Delaware Papers, English Period: Page 12

Relation from the Whorekill Concering Jan de Caper's Sloop, 1670

On the 20th of December 1670 a sachem of Nassawam, who lives near Sachomok, came here to this place... We asked for an Indian with a canoe to take us there which the sachem agreed to for 1  1/2 fathoms of black se-want.... we offered them ten fathoms of se-want and a blanket,...

In the same document but several records later in October 6th of 1670, on page 18, we can see Marten Roseman, Edman Kantwel, Pieter Cock, Pieter Rambo, Israel Helm and Matheus de Ringh, (clerk)  in their report picks up on the use of the term wampum... but don't seem to know how it factors into the language or how to use it as a reference. The letter was signed by "Matheus de Ring", Clerk.

Report of a meeting with Indians on the Delaware about a murder, 1670 

"... presented us with a small bundle of white se-want about 3 or 4 fathoms", They then gave us another bundle of white wampum adding these words.... Whereupon they also give the Mincquasen a gift, namely, a belt of se-want with a bundle of white se-want, ... We answered them, when we accepted this money or se-want, saying that when we accept this money or se-want we accept it..."

In the Delaware records, from 1664 to 1682, the term wampum is not generally used, appearing only 5 times. For historic museums, villages and reenactors this may be an interesting topic as is shows that when there is a disconnect between the soveriegn government and the population they are ruling over; the imposing of new terms from a different language can take an exceedingly long time.

For Albany, we can see that from the time the English seized control in 1664 to 1680 there was zero acquisition of the term wampum, and the 438 times the term sea-wan is used compare to the 15 times wampum is used demonstrates the barrier intrinsic to language and tradition can impose, lest it cause confusion during an economic trade. The people of Albany took it further, and relegated the term wampum to only beads in the form of a belt. The people of the Delaware River region were just as slow to change. However, we can see the court in New Castle making adjustments to use wampum as a currency (or valuation) between colonist in the same way we sea-wan is used as the base currency in the rest of the colony.

In 1675, we see a case adopt the use of wampum as if sea-wan, in that he uses the wampum as a "value" or currency. Page 64.

Gabriela Manville Plt. Contra Capt. John Carr Deft., New Castle , 1675

The plt. declares that this deft. became indented unto him in the "Yeare" 1671 for "Linning" Should unto him at New Yorke the Summe of f.521: wampum "Vallue" to be paid in Small "Furres" upon demand...

While the single case above shows that the British generals are using wampum  it does not seem to trickle down to the citizens; sailors, trades people, small merchants or even large merchants according to wills, deeds, and other primary sources. In the end, we can see that for the 1614 to 1696 there is likely difficulty adopting to new terminology; when the existing terms were being used on a day to day basis, between both the colonist with the Indigenous population and the colonist to colonist. It is possible that the use of sea-wan continued until the currency became displaced with bills.

Colonial Labeling of Native Americans

One of the terms that seems to be rather difficult to translate into English is "wilde". This is because in part the Dutch use the term wilde for things, plants, animals and Native Americans. For the English the term "wild" is used for things and animals; while the word savage if reserved for indigenous people. The Dutch use the term wilde for only Native Americans but not Indigenous Persons from other nations (See the translation problem?). The English use savage as a general term for Indigenous Persons. But for all the Game of Thrones fans out there, you'll notice a trend where the term wilde is use in a similar way as "wild-ling" or person of nature or outside of urban European-cultural norms but with their own social-organizational patterns and laws. This recognition of separate cultural, legal system and sovereignty seems to be what separates the terms "wilde" and "savage". I don't know why the 17th Century Dutch choose this term, but lets look at the primary sources.

From the time of the first permanent European settlement in 1618 in Albany, New York to the seizure of Manhattan by the English in 1664 and then final transfer of sovereign control to the British in 1674, legal records were kept in Dutch. After 1674, all legal documents were mandated to be kept in English; many documents such as inventories, wills, letters and others continue to be kept in Dutch, and sometimes German and French. While I am not a language scholar, we can use primary sources to determine the meaning of labels and how they were applied to different people and groups. Translation dictionaries can often give us clues in how and when labels are utilized. Terms such as wilde, indian/indean, Japon and Turk are all terms that appear in 17th century books, letters, legal records and inventories. 

Bear with me, we are going to cover a topic that can be political. I ask that we look at it so that we can understand what 17th century people specific to New Netherland and New York were trying to state, explain or record in early documents.  

The savage pea plants of America ! : 
The term "wilde" may seem like an easy translation but it is not accurate due to the Dutch not using the word wilde in the same way English use savage, though there is consistency with the French and German. For instance, the Dutch would say "wild beast" which in English one could say "wild beast" or "savage beats". But the Dutch also use "wilde" for "wilde apple blossoms" and "wilde pea plants of America". Whereas, in English we don't say, "savage apple blossoms" or the "savage pea plants of America". (What a crazy movie that would be.) The term "wilde" for the Dutch is not interpreted as savage; "wilde" is meant to be interpreted as simply existing outside of the urban and formal farming culture, or "natural, in nature, of nature". 


Terminology: In the 1708 Groot Fransch en Nederduits woordenboek it states the following: 
"Sauvage", adj. Feroce, qui n'est point apprivoisé. Wildt, wreedt, ongetemt. 
Bete Sauvage. Een wildt beest. [ wild Beast ]
Pommier sauvage. Een wildt appelboom. [ wild apple bloom ]
Humeur Sauvage. Een mufien aart, een wildt inborst. [ a wild mood ]

This particular label is needed for interpreting court records such as the following. Note that the terms "natural" or "wilde" female and "black" female are used rather than "savage/sauvage", "Indian", "barbarous" or a variation on the N-word. (Side Note: This is not to say the N-word does not turn up regularly, it does appear often in different forms; but it is important for it to have its own post with attached primary sources.)   


New Netherland Council Minutes 1638 - 1649, page 37: 
Ulrich lupoldt fiscael....vs. Nicolaes Coorn Sargant....Bylen die he ende de soldaten waren Gedaen om hout te hacken, aende "wilden" voor zijn particulier te verruilen ende bevers tegens Sijn gedaenen eet in mijn coy heeft gehadt. ... Van gelijken tot verscheiden maelen "wildinnen"  [wilde females] ende Swartinennen [Black females] geheele nachten by hem gedachte hebben geslapen, in mijn Bet, tor presentie van alle de Soldaten." Page 37 Link.

"Ulrich Iupoldt fiscal vs. Nicolas Coorn Sargant... who by reason of his office was in duty bound to set a good moral example to his soldiers, has notwithstanding has been guilty of bartering with the wilde for private gain, the axes which were given him and the soldiers to cut wood and contrary to his oath has hidden the beavers in his bunk. ... Likewise, the defendant has at divers times had wilde females and black [swart=black] females sleep entire nights with him in his bed, in the presence of all the soldiers." 

The below is a cropping of the 20th century original transcript (not original document from 1638) of the New Netherland Council Minutes 1638 - 1649, page 37 section 27. These documents are available for free on the New Netherland Institute's website. 

Whereas, An Universal Etymological English Dictionary of 1731 states the following as the whole definition of "savage". The words savage and wild are separated. English Dictionary Link. 

Savage, wild barbarous people who keep no fix'd habitation, have no religion, law or policy. 


Here we get continuity, both colonial English and the Dutch use Barbarous (Dutch: Barbaar) for persons that appear to be a threat (though not to refer to themselves). When the Dutch wished to use a word closer to the English meaning of "savage" they used "barbarous", a barbarous people and may be associated with a person who purchases or drinks alcohol. This term has appeared occasionally in documents. 

On October 1656 Willem Hoffmeyr from Brazil and living in Fort Orange, was being accused of selling beer to "wilde-indian" in the opening statement, with a more detailed account of "on the 22d, 23d, and 24th of July last past, with five half barrels of good and small beer mixed together, sailed up the  river and sold and peddled the beer among the "wilde-barbar". The acusasaions continue with a reduction in the severity of "wilde-indian" and "wilde-babar" to "wilde" and the plural "wilden". - Fort Orange Council Minutes page 253 for the translated and also the original document from 1656 below. See the yellow underlines. Note that wilde is being used as the noun and Indian or barbarian as a descriptor. There are other nouns that are used in the same way such as Laken (a fulled twill woolen) vs. Serge Laken (a twilled woolen that is not fulled). The New Netherland Dutch tend to quantify many things in documents, so modifying the word wilde to meet the prosecutor's needs is not surprising. 

The term Indian does not readily apply either, and is use rarely in Dutch and even German documents. This may be due to the Dutch being regularly exposed to products from and writings about the nation of India. Roughly 2/3rds of men and 1/3 of women in the Netherlands were literate. This too may of helped, as did the regular education of both boys and girls in lower schools. 

In the 1655 Dutch book, Korte historian, ends jouraels aenteyckeninge, van verscheyden voyages in de vier deepen des wereldts-roune... the term "Indianen" is used to refer to the people of India, and rarely to the people of North America. The author having traveled to both regions and used separate terms to describe the people respectively.  Likewise, we see this in inventories; Wilde (Native people), Indian/Indean (India), Japon (Japan) and Turks (Turkish). All these terms are use in inventories in America often in the same inventory to delineate different items and their respective place of origin and value. 



Wilde, a People Recognized as a Nation: 
One interesting practice was international treaties. The Dutch enter into treaties for trade and peace with various indigenous tribes. Not only did the Dutch recognize that the Native Americans were legally able to enter into and sign contracts, they were treated as a separate nation and could not be punished under Dutch laws. A Native American could bare witness in a court cases against a European on trial, but could not be prosecuted themselves. However, any incident performed by an Indigenous Person would be reported to the person's tribal leaders. One governor Keift even tried to tax Indigenous person, but this did not comply with general Dutch legal structures of separate nations under treaties. This recognition of separate people as citizens under their respective nations and subject to separate sets of laws also distinguishes the term "wilde" from savage. This acceptance tends to carry over to the English occupation from 1664 to their sovereign control in 1667, and until the second granting of sovereignty in 1674. As a whole, Both the Dutch and English seem to treat Native Americans as a people with culture and subject to respective legal systems during the 17th Century. More study is needed to determine when the turning point is but the purchasing of property from Native Americans continues though the whole of the 17th century, with Indigenous persons signing contracts and deeds at least until the year 1700. 


Continued Use: 
Inventories also shed light on another phenomena, the term wilde continues to be used along side "Indian" ten, twenty and thirty years after the British were granted sovereign control. Wilde disappears from court documents in 1674, but continues in inventories and letters into the 1690s. 

Most interesting, people of Indigenous heritage are often referred to by name in Dutch and later New York era documents. Tribe names also make appearances, and the original Native American names for certain garments, material goods and other items create by indigenous persons are adopted by BOTH the Europen and British population. For instance, the term for a bag made by "wilde" is called "notassie" which is not a Dutch word but is regularly used by Europen people when referring to bags made by local Native Americans. Inventories in the Dutch from 1650 and in English from 1680s both use the term "notassie" (Dutch version) / "notase" (English version).  I don't know which of the Indigenous languages this word comes from but the Mohawk and Lenape terms for bag are "kaiarowá" / "nikaiar" and "putalas" / "xesinutay" / "menutesa" respectively. It may be that the "me-nutesa" which is a handbag or purse is our "notase", as the two "notase" are described as fitting into a travel bag. It seems that the name of the handband or purse was a Lanepe word, adopted by the Dutch and then later by the English. 

As we move forward through inventories whether under the Dutch or the English it is important to understand the different terms so to be able to appreciate the material goods in primary sources. The terms "wilde, barbarian, Indian, and savage" should be understood as accurately as possible and with understanding of the landscape it was used. 

Was this helpful in understanding term "wilde" in 17th Century Dutch New Netherland and English New York ?